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Specific Power (300 W/kg) Operating Temperature Range (−40 to +50 °C) Selling price (150 USD/kWh) Calendar Life (10 years) 140 Specific Energy 100 (150 Wh/kg) 60 20 Cycle Life (1000 Cycles) Power Density (460 W/l) Energy Density (230 W/l) Figure 1.2: A “spider plot” showing the various requirements for batteries in all- electric vehicles (numbers = 100% = USABC targets). The shaded area represents commercial Li-ion technology in 2006. Reproduced from [35]. While advances in Li-ion technology are to be expected [29, 30], their maximum spe- cific capacity and energy density are constrained by fundamental limits, see appendix A.2. Also, the requirements for batteries are complex (Fig. 1.2) and Li-ion based cells may not fit every application’s profile. This is where lithium-sulfur (Li/S) batteries come into play: They have the potential to overcome most of the aforementioned limi- tations by providing considerably increased energy density at a lower cost [31, 32]. Although a thorough analysis of all raw materials and processing costs of this type of cell at an industrial scale has not yet been done in detail, there is a very promising case study by students of the Haas School of Business2, cf. Ref. [33]. Additionally, sulfur, as well as all other components of sulfur cathodes, are relatively abundant, environmentally benign and conflict-free [10–13, 34]. 1.2 The lithium-sulfur system The Li/S cell is a conversion cell, where sulfur is reduced from S8 to Li2S according to the following global reaction: S8 +16Li 8Li2S+3400kJ/mol. 2Haas School of Business, University of California, 2220 Piedmont Ave, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA 13PDF Image | Lithium-Sulfur Battery: Design, Characterization, and Physically-based Modeling
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