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Electrochem 2021, 2 244 S.N. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 14 15 Polymer/Solvent Polyacrylonitrile /dimethylformaide (PAN/DMF) with a metal precursor Coal, PAN/DMF [PAN + PMMA + tin octoate]/DMF PVP, cobalt nitrate [Co(NO3)] in water/ethanol ZIF-67, PAN/DMF PAN, cobalt salt/DMF PAN, terephthalic acid/DMF Pitch/DMF Polyimide/dimethylacetamide (PI/DMAc) Cellulose/acetone-dimethylacetamide PVP, ammonia borane/methanol Lignin, polyvinyl alcohol/distilled water (PVA/DW) PAN, PVDF/DMF Plant protein/acetic acid Fiber Diameter/Surface Area 200–500 nm/N/A N/A N/A 150 nm/N/A 200 nm/338.37 m2 g−1 400–600 nm/N/A Micrometer/N/A Micrometer/N/A 50–500 nm/N/A 150 nm/145 m2 g−1 100 ± 23 nm/1670 m2 g−1 200–300 nm/29 m2 g−1 413–900 nm/N/A Application Energy storage Energy storage Lithium-based batteries Sodium ion batteries Li–S batteries Energy storage Electrochemical test Gas diffusion n/a Energy storage Lithium-ion batteries Energy storage CO2 adsorbents Energy storage References [59,88,117] [118] [119] [120] [121] [32] [122] [123] [124] [125] [126] [127] [128] [129] imately 1.6 times higher than that of pristine CNFs [47]. Few reports have shown the growth of metal-based compounds on ECNFs as negative electrode materials for superca- pacitors [115,116]. The optimal concentration of metal doping can be beneficial to obtain high capacitance without sacrificing EDLC behavior and the high conductivity of the carbon materials. Otherwise, the composite simply becomes a composite that demonstrates metal-dominated behavior, i.e., high Faradic activity and low stability [58]. Table 2. Precursors to obtain carbon fibers, their application, and properties. 5. Challenges, Opportunities, and Future Directions Generally, carbon fibers are brittle; therefore, it is very challenging to retain fibers in their free-standing and flexible state. There are some reports that show the successful fabri- cation of highly flexible carbon fibers, and they have been used to study electrochemical performance [130,131]. Tian et al. showed interconnected networks of carbon fibers that im- proved the integrity and buffered the volume expansion of an electrode, while contributing to its flexibility [132]. Similarly, Liu et al. [33] synthesized highly flexible electrospun-based carbon fibers from pitch using a crosslinking strategy. The as-designed product exhibited a capacitance of 170 F g−1 at a current density of 1 A g−1. Another challenge is to make a three-dimensional flexible network. As-spun membrane-derived carbon fibers are similar to a two-dimensional sheet composed of compacted fibers. In such a case, the modification of fibers by electrochemically active materials to achieve high performance can be limited to only the surface of exposed fibers, and the remaining internally located fibers of the membrane remain untouched [32]. Recently, the fabrication of three-dimensional foam-like carbonaceous structures has been reported [28,32,133]. For instance, electrospinning and subsequent post-processing (gas foaming) result in a three-dimensional network struc- ture. Tiwari et al. [28,32] recently demonstrated a three-dimensional carbonaceous porous network that exhibited high capacitances up to 205 F g−1 at a current density of 1 A g−1. The PAN nanofibrous mats were first fabricated in a three-dimensional shape by sodium borohydride-mediated hydrolysis, causing hydrogen gas to become trapped into the fi- brous network. Later, these were carbonized to obtain carbon fibers. Current challengesPDF Image | Review of Electrospun Carbon Nanofiber-Based Negative Electrode Materials
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