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Promising glucose chemical derivatives: Sorbitol Levulinic acid Glucaric acid Hydroxymethylfurfural 2,5-Furan dicarboxylic acid p-Xylene 4.4 Plant-based Oil Platform The oleochemical industry is a major producer of bio-based products. A recent study of Taylor indicates that in the 2009–10 cropping year the estimated world production of vegetable oils was close to 140 million metric tonnes. Of this, approximately 20% was used for non-food uses, including biofuel (126). Global oleochemical production in 2009 amounted to 7.7 million tonnes of fatty acids and 2.0 million tonnes of fatty alcohols (10). The majority of fatty acid derivatives are used as surface active agents in soaps, detergents and personal care products (126). Major sources for these applications are coconut, palm and palm kernel oil, which are rich in C12–C18 saturated and mono- unsaturated fatty acids. Important products of unsaturated oils, such as: soybean, sunflower and linseed oil, include alkyd resins, linoleum and epoxidized oils. Rapeseed oil, high in oleic acid, is a favoured source for biolubricants. Commercialized bifunctional building blocks for bio-based plastics include sebacic acid and 11-aminoundecanoic acid, both from castor oil, and azelaic acid derived from oleic acid. Dimerized fatty acids are primarily used for polyamide resins and polyamide hot melt adhesives. In applications such as lubricants and hydraulic fluids, plant oil can act as direct replacement for mineral (petroleum-derived) oil, or require only minor chemical modification. As a chemical feedstock, the triacylglycerol molecule – the major component of most plant oils - is either (a) cleaved to glycerol and fatty acids or (b) converted to alkyl esters and glycerol by transesterification. The utility of the fatty acids and esters is determined primarily by their chain length and functionality. Given advances in plant genetics and oil processing, there is considerable interest in developing plant oils for the manufacture of polymers such as polyurethanes, polyamides and epoxy resins (127). Biodiesel production has increased significantly in recent years with a large percentage being derived from palm, rapeseed and soy oils. In 2009 biodiesel production was around 14 million tonnes; this quantity of biodiesel co-produces around 1.4 million tonnes of glycerol. Glycerol is an important co-product of fatty acid/alcohol production. The glycerol market demand in 2009 was 1.8 million tonnes (10). Glycerol is also an important co-product of fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) biodiesel production. It can be purified and sold for a variety of uses. The new supply of glycerol has encouraged chemical producers to look at technology for its conversion to chemical building blocks. Glycerol can serve as feedstock for fermentation and anaerobic digestion. However, it has been the chemical conversion of glycerol to three carbon chemicals, such as epichlorohydrin and propylene glycol, that has received particular attention. Promising glycerol derived chemicals: Propylene glycol Epichlorohydrin 1,3-Propanediol 3-Hydroxypropion aldehyde Acrylic acid Propylene Methanol (via syngas) There is also an important subcategory of oilseeds that produce natural waxes, such as liquid wax from jojoba seeds and the solid waxes collected from the leaf surfaces of the Carnuba palm and several desert shrubs. These tend to be used in specialized high value applications, such as cosmetics. Their excellent lubricity and stability in lubricant applications has led to interest in engineering wax ester production in commercial oilseed crops (126). 4.5 Algae Oil Platform There are more than 40.000 different algae species both in seawater and freshwater. Algae biomass can be a sustainable renewable resource for chemicals and energy. The major advantages of using microalgae as renewable resource are: 1. Compared to plants algae have a higher productivity. This is mostly due to the fact that the entire biomass can be used in contrast to plants which have roots, stems and leafs. For example, the oil productivity per land surface can be up to 10 times higher than palm oil. 2. Microalgae can be cultivated in seawater or brackish water on non-arable land, and do not compete for resources with conventional agriculture. 3. The essential elements for growth are sunlight, water, CO2 (a greenhouse gas), and inorganic nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorous which can be found in residual streams. 4. The biomass can be harvested during all seasons and is homogenous and free of lignocellulose. The incorporation of low-volume, high-value chemical products is considered as a step on the way to large-scale algal biochemicals and biofuels production. This may offer a business model for a faster deployment of this technology. The main components of microalgae are species dependent but can contain a high protein content, quantities can be up to 50% of dry weight in growing cultures with all 20 amino acids present. Carbohydrates as storage products are also present and some species are rich in storage and functional lipids, they can accumulate up to 50% lipids, and in very specific cases up to 80 % (the green algae Botryococcus) which accumulates long chain hydrocarbons. Other valuable compounds include: pigments, antioxidants, fatty acids, vitamins, anti-fungal, -microbial, -viral toxins, and sterols. Microalgae have been grown for decades at small scale for high value compounds, especially in Asia and North America, mainly for application in food and feed. However, this is restricted to a very a small number of species; Spirulina and Chlorella are well- known examples. The production capacity for microalgae is presently limited in comparison to land-based energy crops. 7PDF Image | Bio-based Chemicals Value Added Products from Biorefineries
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