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4 METHODOLOGICAL GUIDANCE Fossil or mineral sources If the CO2 undergoes end-of-life sequestration (CCS for combustion sources or permanent storage of the product), no such balancing of negative and positive emissions occurs and the negative emission is retained in the car- bon inventory. It is therefore possible to end up with an overall negative car- bon emissions value (net carbon sink). The other sources of CO2 discussed in Section 4.4.1 are fossil sources and mineral sources (e.g. from cement production facilities). The distinction was made between those sources in which the CO2 was available for utilisation as a waste substance with no net burden (Options 2a and 3) and those sources that specially produced CO2 for utilisation (Option 5). In the first case, the net balance between carbon removal and carbon emissions is zero, as the emissions burden is completely assigned to the upstream (CO2-generating) process, unless an allocation approach has been adopted and the burden has been reasonably partitioned between the upstream CO2-generating process and the CO2-utilising process. In the second case, the CCU product retains fossil-character right through to end of life, resulting in a carbon footprint that is likely to be far larger than that of the original fossil-based raw materials. 4.4.3.2 Temporary storage of CO2 The utilisation of CO2 automatically results in the temporary storage of the gas that would otherwise be released to the atmosphere and contribute to climate change. In the case of direct air capture, temporary storage spans the period from capture up until the end of life of the CCU product (exception: recycling loops). If CO2 from an industrial combustion flue stream is cap- tured and utilised, no CO2 is removed from the atmosphere, instead CO2 that would otherwise have been emitted into the atmosphere is bound in a prod- uct. This results in delayed emission of CO2 at the end of the product’s life. Current LCA or GHG accounting methodologies make no attempt to include the time at which emissions or removals occur. At present the default char- acterisation factor used is the global warming potential (GWP), which ena- bles the impact of GHG emissions to be taken into account over a fixed time horizon. Typically, a time horizon of 100 years is selected. The decision to use a time horizon of 100 years was more political than scientific (Brandão 2012). The time horizon behind the GWP100 characterisation factor can lead to problems of consistency when considering emissions that are initiated at different times. Choosing to use GWP100 means that the impact of green- house gas emissions associated with, say, the manufacture of a product in 2017 will be taken into account up until the year 2117. The impact of green- house gas emissions from the end-of-life treatment of a product that has been used for 10 years will be taken into account up until 2127. In this sce- Taking delayed emissions into account 316PDF Image | Chemical Processes and Use of CO2
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