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Energies 2021, 14, 2406 5 of 26 Figure 5. Projected global CO2 emissions per scenario (adapted from Climate Action Tracker [18]). According to this study, if no changes are applied, the continued growth will lead to about 120 Gt equivalent of CO2 emitted per year in 2050. However, to achieve the 1.5 ◦C pathway of the Paris Agreement, the CO2 emissions should be 0 Gt by then. 3. Carbon Capture (Utilization) and Storage (CCUS or CCS) Basically, carbon capture and storage (CCS) consists of the separation and concentra- tion of CO2 from power generation plants or industrial processes, its pressurization and transportation, via ship or pipeline, to specific locations where it should be permanently stored deep underground, in geological formations (depleted oil or gas reservoirs or deep saline aquifers) [20,21]. This technology has been identified as a priority, being a critical emissions reduction technology that can be applied across the energy system, expecting to play an essential role in meeting the global warming targets [22–24]. CCS is often used interchangeably with the term Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS). The difference between the two terms presented is the ‘utilization’ word, which refers to the use of carbon for other applications. CCUS can contribute to almost one-fifth of the emissions reductions needed across the industry sector. CCUS will play a key role in reducing CO2 emissions from fossil-fuel-based power generation and is the only option available to reduce direct emissions from other industrial point sources signifi- cantly [25]. It was estimated that the use of CCUS would address up to 32% of global CO2 emissions reduction by 2050 [26]. More than 28 Gt of CO2 could be captured from industrial processes until 2060, the majority of it from the cement, steel, and chemical subsectors [27]. CCS and CCUS technologies are developed slowly, mainly as a result of high costs and unsupportive policy and regulatory frameworks in many countries [28]. The economic penalty of the capture is the crucial obstacle to CCS/CCUS implemen- tation. The efficiency of the CO2 capture must be increased in the capture step of the processes, as it is estimated that the capture step is responsible for 60% to 80% of the overall CCS/CCUS economic penalty [8,20]. The capture part of the process represents the main promise for cost reduction and focuses on most of the research efforts. CCS or CCUS is far from the ideal solution because it does not directly use green fuels. Still, it is the only technology capable of maintaining the utilization of the existing power plants. In these types of processes, CO2 capture technologies can be classified into three groups: pre-combustion systems, post-combustion systems, and oxy-fuel or oxy-combustion processes. The first and second systems depend on whether carbon dioxide is removed before or after fuel is burned. In the third, pure oxygen rather than air is used for combus- tion [3]. Figure 6 shows a brief scheme of methods for carbon capture.PDF Image | Current Developments of Carbon Capture Storage
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