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Energies 2021, 14, 2406 15 of 26 The Global CCS Institute (2019 data) [14] reports the existence of five facilities (one large-scale and four small-scale) actively operating using BECCS technologies worldwide. Approximately 1.5 million tonnes of CO2 per annum (Mtpa) are captured by these facilities. Table 3 shows a description of these BECCS facilities and the planned projects. Table 3. Brief description of BECCS facilities operating today and planned projects (Notes: Mtpa— million tonnes per annum; tpa—tonnes per annum; tpd—tonnes per day). Operating Today—Five Facilities in USA Illinois CCS (USA)—1 Mtpa Ethanol is produced from corn at its Decatur plant, producing CO2 as part of the fermentation process Kansas Arkalon (USA)—200,000 tpa CO2 is compressed and piped from an ethanol plant in Kansas to Booker and Farnsworth Oil Units in Texas for EOR Bonanza CCS (USA)—100,000 tpa CO2 is compressed and piped from an ethanol plant in Kansas to nearby Stewart Oil field for EOR Husky Energy CO2 Injection (Canada)—250 tpd CO2 is compressed and trucked from an ethanol plant (Saskatchewan) to nearby Lashburn and Tangleflags oil fields for EOR Farnsworth (USA)—600,000 tonnes CO2 is compressed from an ethanol plant (Kansas) and fertiliser plant (Texas) and piped to Farnsworth oil field for EOR Planning—One facility in Asia and Two facilities in Europe Mikawa Power Plant (Japan) Retrofit of a 49-MW unit power plant (Omuta, Fukuoka Prefecture) to accept 100% of tonne of biomass with a CO2 capture facility.Current situation: identify a secure offshore storage site Drax Power Plant (UK) Biomass power generation pilot (North Yorkshire): high potential to develop CO2 capture and storage Drax Power Plant (UK) BECCS integration into waste-to-energy and a cement plants: Plant: plans to capture 400,000 tpa of CO2 (Klemetsrud waste-to-energy)Currently co-fires up to 30% biomass and plans to capture up to 400,000 tpa of CO2 (Norcem Cement plant) CO2 will be sent to a storage site (Norwegian North Sea) from waste-to-energy and cement plants Note: Mtpa is million tonnes per annum of CO2; tpa is tonnes per annum of CO2; tpd is tonnes per day of CO2. 4.2. Direct Air Capture (DAC) Industrial applications containing air capture technology are not new and have existed since 1930 [68]. In contrast to carbon dioxide capture from sources, such as cement or biomass plants, direct air capture (DAC) is a technology that captures CO2 directly from the ambient air and generates an enriched stream of CO2 for storage or use. The process can be denominated as physical or chemical separation. Figure 10 presents a scheme of the DAC process. Figure 10. Scheme of DAC (adapted from Gutknecht [69]).PDF Image | Current Developments of Carbon Capture Storage
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