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electrolysis powered by renewable or nuclear energy. The advantage of nuclear and biomass sources towards renewables, is that the generation of H2 can take place at a continuous rate. In electrolysis, H2 may be produced through alkaline (AEM) or proton exchange membranes (PEM), or by steam electrolysis in a SOEC. Even if the SOEC is the most efficient option, it is currently less developed than the other types of cells [35]. Biomass, wind and solar are currently the most common renewable sources for electricity supply in water electrolysis [36]. Wind and solar are intermittent renewable sources; thus they benefit from options to avoid reaching the threshold below which no electricity is produced, and from options to store electricity produced. For instance, Carton and Olabi [37] evaluated system of hydrogen synthesis and fuel cell technology in Ireland, for wind power. The same Power-to-Gas system, with fuel cells providing electricity when needed, is the subject of study in the work by Gahleitner [38]; a review of worldwide pilot plants points out the interest of Germany in this type of integrated systems. The work by Centi et al. [39] pointed out the link between (i) the need for storage of the excess electrical energy, and the (ii) need from the chemical industry to decrease its dependency towards fossil fuel, as both raw material and energy supplier. In this framework, CO2 use as raw material, combined with H2, is a mean to introduce renewable energy into the chemical production chain. The centralised production of H2 would require the additional development of infrastructure for delivery to and storage for the end-user [40]. In general, H2 distribution needs to be more energy efficient and to reduce costs; these are qualities that H2 carriers improve. Formic acid has been identified as a potential liquid H2 carrier due to its almost CO2 neutral cycle (CO2 combination with H2 to form FA, and FA decomposition to give H2 and CO2) [41]. Market overview Hydrogen total European production was estimated at 92 billion Nm3, with almost 98 % of it in EU- 28 and 2 % in Iceland, Norway and Switzerland (2007) [42]. The captive industry (ammonia and methanol) produces around 64 % of this total, followed by the by-product industry (ethylene, acetylene, styrene and coke-oven gas), with 27 % of the production, and by merchant companies, with 9 % of the total share [42]. There were 83 installations included in the EU ETS concerning H2 and syngas generation, including plants from the chemical and refinery sectors [43]. Hydrogen is almost entirely used as feedstock in the refining and chemical industry. In Europe, 50 % is consumed by the refinery sector, 32 % is used in the ammonia industry and together with the MeOH and metal industrials, they comprise around 90 % of the total H2 used in Europe [42]. The hydrogen market is growing due to regulations in transport fuel desulphurisation, among others [31]. It is estimated that its global demand will increase by 5-6 % during the next five years and that consumption in 2018 will be about 868 billion Nm3 [31]. 1.3 JRC selection of the most promising CDU pathways The JRC prioritised five CDU pathways based on their technological and industrial readiness, i.e. TRL (defined as in [44]), and their market potential, following the discussions that took place in the "CO2 re-use workshop" in June 2013 [45]. The selected technologies comprise transport fuels, chemicals and materials, in line with the concept of a circular economy. Note that even if the selected products have mature markets, their production from CO2 is emerging. Moreover, growing markets could be identified around innovative uses of the above-mentioned products or newer conversion processes in order to provide a more significant contribution to CO2 emissions mitigation. For instance, the so-called methanol economy and hydrogen economy aim at replacing fossil fuels by these two energy carriers, thus creating aspirations for high demand for methanol, its derivatives, and for formic acid, for instance, as a hydrogen carrier [5]. 19PDF Image | evaluation of CO2 utilisation for fuel production
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