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price of electricity by itself cannot make the CDU plant competitive. A lower price of consumables is crucial, and this may be only achieved by sustained R & D. FA has a current global production of 0.62 Mt/yr (2012). The estimate of different PFs, as in the fuel cells market for stationary applications and its use as a hydrogen carrier in the transportation sector (in FCV and combined with CNG) results in a total European demand for FA of a minimum of 5 Mt FA/yr, entailing a demand of 4 MtCO2/yr, or a maximum of 24 Mt FA /yr, involving 21 MtCO2/yr. This means that there are 10-47 MtCO2/yr that would not be emitted because of the hypothetical use of the CDU process, instead of the conventional one. This would also imply savings in heavy fuel oil consumption: a total amount of 2-10 Mt/yr. As order of magnitude comparisons, CCS demonstration projects like ROAD (in NL), aims at storing 1.1 MtCO2/yr. A conventional coal power plant of 750 MW of net power, emits about 6 MtCO2/yr [157]. Urea is the most important product synthesised from CO2, using it as carbon carrier; about 112 MtCO2/yr were used in 2011 as feedstock worldwide [18]. The MeOH CDU process would require 41-76 MtCO2/yr, and the FA CDU process would entail 4-21 MtCO2/yr in Europe by 2030. To put these figures under perspective, 7 to 13 coal power plants, with partial capture, could supply the demand of CO2 for MeOH synthesis, and 1 to 4 coal plants, also with partial capture, could supply the corresponding one for FA synthesis. However, the gain of the CDU plants is significant in the situation where, instead of the conventional processes, CDU plants are used. The CO2 not-emitted ranges between 16-31 Mt/yr (MeOH) and 10-47 Mt/yr (FA): this represents savings on CO2 emissions equivalent to emissions of 2 to almost 8 coal power plants. Without the combination with renewables, the competitiveness of the CDU plants is uncertain. The following paragraphs focus on the equivalences between the CO2 demanded by the CDU plant, the electricity required to synthesise the CO2-based product and the CO2 emitted by a coal power plant. At a plant level, the MeOH CDU plant consumes 12 MWh/tMeOH, and the FA CDU plant consumes 4 MWh/tFA of electricity. The MeOH plant requires 1.46 tCO2/tMeOH, while the FA plant involves 0.834 tCO2/tFA. A coal power plant emits 840 tCO2/GWh [157]. Taking into account the CO2 emissions not generated because natural gas is not used, in the MeOH CDU plant (0.6 tNG/tMeOH, emission factor of 2.75 tCO2/tNG [113]), the CO2 emissions associated to 1.65 MWh generated by coal, per tonne of MeOH, are prevented. Analogously, for the FA CDU plant and heavy fuel oil (0.4 tHFO/tFA, emission factor of 3.26 tCO2/tHFO [113]), this represents 1.3 MWh generated by coal, per tonne of FA. A production of one tonne of CO2-based MeOH needs the CO2 generated by 1.7 MWh of power produced by coal. Thus, in order to use the CO2 emissions equivalent to 1.7 MWh of electricity produced by coal, 12 MWh of renewable energy are needed. If the same calculation is applied to the FA process, in order to produce one tonne of CO2-based FA, the CO2 emissions equivalent to 1. MWh of electricity produced by coal are needed and, 4 MWh of renewable energy are required in the CO2- based FA process. Considering the annual productions of 450 kt MeOH and 12 kt FA, the total electricity consumed is about 5 400 GWh/yr and 48 GWh/yr, respectively, per plant. The total demand of steam is 33 MWh/yr for the FA CDU process. As a matter of comparison, primary production of energy (electricity and heat) from renewable sources by country for year 2014 (16), puts into relevance that the consumption of renewable electricity will put a limit in the size of the CDU plant: A country like Germany produced 420 000 GWh of renewable energy, while a country like Ireland, produced 10 000 GWh. In this report we took into account the benchmark fossil fuel processes size to 16 http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/energy/data/database 62PDF Image | evaluation of CO2 utilisation for fuel production
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