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Energies 2019, 12, 809 7 of 41 Green diesel can be produced by a larger range of feedstocks in comparison to biodiesel. The transesterification of an unsaturated feedstock provides a biodiesel blend of unsaturated FAMEs which is susceptible to oxidative instability or may react with the alkaline catalysts to give soaps. As a result, biodiesel production needs special concern on the concentration of the unsaturated fatty acids [13,32]. On the other hand, green diesel is produced through the saturation of the triglycerides with H2 and results in a blend of saturated hydrocarbons regardless the initial feedstock [19,22]. Table 3. Typical fatty acid composition of various microalgae species. Data from [41]. sp.: species. Typical Fatty Acid Composition, wt% Fatty acid Capric (10:0) Lauric (12:0) Myristic (14:0) Palmitic (16:0) Palmitoleic (16:1) Stearic (18:0) Oleic (18:1) Linoleic (18:2) Linolenic (18:3) Arachidic (20:0) Eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5) Docosahexaenoic acid (22:6) Total Saturated Total Unsaturated 2.2. Sugars and Starches Nannochlopsis Oculata. 0.41 5.76 32.21 29.57 0.98 20.10 1.28 8.26 40.5 59.5 Picochlorum Phaeodactylum Amphidinium Bidduphia sp. Tricornutum sp. sp. sp. 0.07 0.55 3.29 0.79 21.50 6.61 Extubocellulus 17.03 23.62 35.68 23.62 1.22 48.16 1.08 33.36 3.45 0.81 4.10 0.73 0.95 15.73 3.61 19.35 1.47 3.21 36.22 15.07 2.11 5.68 12.13 11.94 9.65 20.21 23.7 28.1 46.3 48.8 33.6 76.3 71.9 53.7 51.2 66.4 25.56 60.52 Simple sugars (e.g., sugar cane and sugar beet) or starches (e.g., corn, wheat and sorghum) may be used as feedstocks for the production of renewable liquid biofuels [43]. The sugars contained into the biomass are transformed into bio-ethanol and CO2 through enzymatic fermentation, a process which is well established in the liquor industry for the production of alcoholic beverages [44]. Starch containing biomass may also be of use after the pretreatment of enzymatic hydrolysis which converts the starch into corresponding sugars [45]. Sugars and starches have been used mainly for the production of bio-ethanol but recently endeavors have also appeared for the catalytic upgrading of carbohydrates into higher hydrocarbons, as it will be discussed in Section 4. 2.3. Lignocellulose Lignocellulose may be used for the production of useful chemicals and/or biofuels through three technological routes: (a) biochemical conversion into sugars, (b) thermal pyrolysis, and (c) thermochemical gasification. The biochemical conversion of lignocellulose aims at the production of sugars which may then be used for the production of chemicals and/or biofuels through fermentation or other methods. Both cellulose and hemicellulose are carbohydrate polymers which can be transformed into sugars through hydrolysis. Hemicellulose can be hydrolyzed under mild acid or alkaline conditions or by appropriate hemicellulase enzymes. The cellulose fraction is more resistant and requires more potent pretreatment, especially when the lignin content is high. Lignin is acknowledged as a major deterrent to enzymatic hydrolysis because it protects hemicellulose and celullose and makes them less accessible to processing [46,47]. As a result, the biochemical conversion of lignocellulosic biomass requires special lignin pretreatment techniques such as weak and strong acid hydrolysis, lime hydrolysis, ammonia hydrolysis, oxidative delignification (extraction of lignin by chemicals), organosolv processing, steam explosion, CO2 explosion, etc. [48–50]. Herbaceous biomass feedstocks have more loosely bound fibers and lower lignin content. As a result, hemicellulose and cellulose are less protected and the biomass is appropriate for biochemical conversion into sugars. On the other hand, woody biomass is comprised of fibers with high lignin content and requires significant lignin pretreatment before biochemical conversion. These feedstocks are morePDF Image | Green Diesel: Biomass Feedstocks, Production Technologies
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