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Energies 2019, 12, 809 30 of 41 and gasification processes, respectively. Bio-oil upgrading through hydrodeoxygenation was found feasible with high yields of liquid hydrocarbons over sulfided Ni–Mo/Al2O3 and Ru/TiO2. On the other hand, bio-oil upgrading through zeolite cracking was found to provide lower yields of liquids and higher yields of gases such as propylene. Finally, BTL conversion of lignocellulosic biomass was identified as an important technological route for the production of high quality green diesel through Fischer-Tropsch synthesis. HTFT conversion of syngas over Fe catalysts provides mainly gasoline and C3–C6 alkenes. The latter can only yield up to 40% green diesel with a cetane number about 50 through further oligomerization. LTFT conversion over Fe or Co catalysts, on the other hand, provides about 20% saturated hydrocarbons of the appropriate boiling point range and about 50% higher hydrocarbons with a boiling point above 350 ◦C (waxes) which may be hydrocracked over Pt/SiO2-Al2O3 to provide an overall FT green diesel yield of approximately 80% and a cetane number equal to about 75. The diesel fuel produced by the hydroprocessing-hydroisomerization and the BTL technologies has a significantly higher CN, LHV and H/C atomic ratio than No.2 petroleum diesel, appropriate cold flow properties, and through improvement with common additives it easily complies also the lubricity standards of the automotive engine industry. Numerous studies which have tested green diesel in road vehicles and laboratory internal combustion engines have shown improved combustion characteristics during the engine cycle resulting in higher thermal efficiencies by up to 10% and lower brake specific fuel consumptions by 5–10%. They have also shown significantly lower engine emissions of CO, HC, smoke, solid particulates and also of NOx which are known to increase in the case of biodiesel. CO2 emissions have been observed to be at the levels of the petroleum diesel, but one must also account for the renewable nature of the green diesel which does not contribute to net CO2 accumulation in atmosphere. Given the plethora of non-edible biomass resources which can be used for its production, green diesel can play a key role in replacing fossil petroleum in the transportation and residential sectors. Funding: This research received no external funding. Acknowledgments: K.N.P is grateful for the support of the Hellenic Foundation for Research and Innovation (HFRI) and the General Secretariat for Research and Technology (GSRT), under the HFRI PhD Fellowship grant (GA. no. 359). Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. References 1. Chaudhuri, U.R. Fundamentals of Petroleum and Petrochemical Engineering, 2nd ed.; Taylor and Francis Group: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2011. 2. Nejat, P.; Jomehzadeh, F.; Taheri, M.M.; Gohari, M.; Majid, M.Z. A global review of energy consumption, CO2 emissions and policy in the residential sector (with an overview of the top ten CO2 emitting countries). Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2015, 43, 843–862. [CrossRef] 3. Anuar, M.R.; Abdullah, A.Z. Challenges in biodiesel industry with regards to feedstock, environmental, social and sustainability issues: A critical review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2016, 58, 208–223. [CrossRef] 4. Ma, Y.; Gao, Z.; Wang, Q.; Liu, Y. Biodiesels from microbial oils: Opportunity and challenges. Bioresour. Technol. 2018, 263, 631–641. [CrossRef] [PubMed] 5. Gebremariam, S.N.; Marchetti, J.M. Economics of biodiesel production: Review. Energy Convers. Manag. 2018, 168, 74–84. [CrossRef] 6. Liu, S.; Colson, G.; Wetzstein, M. Biodiesel investment in a disruptive tax-credit policy environment. Energy Policy 2018, 123, 19–30. [CrossRef] 7. Rodrigues, A.; Bordado, J.C.; Dos Santos, R.G. Upgrading the glycerol from biodiesel production as a source of energy carriers and chemicals-A technological review for three chemical pathways. Energies 2017, 10, 1817. [CrossRef]PDF Image | Green Diesel: Biomass Feedstocks, Production Technologies
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