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Processes 2020, 8, 548 12 of 22 to immobilize bimetallic salen catalysts that can undergo reaction under mild conditions, deeming them as potential catalysts that can be utilized for continuous flow system as packed-bed reactor. This advancement of heterogeneous of bimetal–organic complexes catalysts enables the recovery of catalysts as an essential approach due their relatively high molecular weight and high production costs. This work utilized the salen complexes that are able to operate under ambient conditions by immobilization on Merrifield resin support via a pendant ammonium moiety (tetraalkylammonium bromide). The recyclability of the catalytic system of bimetallic salen (R1 = t-butyl, R2 = C2H8, X = +NEt2) (Figure 6c), which consists of a single pendant ammonium moiety showing conversion SO in yields of 100%, 94%, and 70% upon two runs. The bimetallic salen (R1 = t-butyl, R2 = C2H8, X = +NEt2Bn −Br) (Figure 6c) with four quaternary ammonium moieties provided conversion of styrene oxide in four successive runs with yields of 79%, 73%, 66%, and 60%. In the continuation of their study, North et al. [41] attempted to change the Merrifield resin with a few types of supports, such as amorphous silica (Figure 6c), due to the excellent results gained using Merrifield resin-supported complexes. However, the silica-supported and aluminium-pillared clay only provided 86% and 21% yields of cyclic carbonate, respectively. In this study, the continuous flow reactor also operated as a silica-supported thermally stable reactor. The catalyst bimetallic salen (R1 = t-butyl, R2 = C2H8, X = +NEt2) supported on silica (Figure 6c) at 100 ◦C showed slow deactivation over the first 8 days, for which it retained 50% conversion, but the restoration by treatment with benzyl bromide provided original activity of the catalyst. Trimetallic Layered Double Hydroxide (LDH) Zhang et al. [42] synthesized trimetallic MgFeAl-LDH from industrial solid wastes of red mud and ferronickel slag. The acid-extracted solutions of solid waste and exfoliation of the LDH by washing with acetone resulted in high surface area of MgFeAl-LDH (319 m2/g) and high CO2 uptake of 70.2 mg/g at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. The MgFeAL-LDH with TBAB as co-catalyst was tested for solvent-free CO2 cycloaddition under different pressures. ECH conversion increased from 75.8% to 98% with high selectivity (≈98%) by increasing pressure from 1 to 5 bar. The paper also studied the effect of conversion toward various epoxides (i.e., ECH, PO, SO, CHO, and AGE) at 50 ◦C and 5 bar after 7 h. The results showed significant conversion and selectivity for all epoxides, for which epichlorohydrin attained the highest conversion of 98.0% and 98.2% selectivity. To verify the synergistic effect between Lewis acid sites of MgFeAl-LDH and the bromine nucleophile of TBAB, MgFeAl-LDH and TBAB were tested separately, giving the ECH conversions of 7.6% and 17.0%, respectively. The MgFeAl-LDH showed high recyclability, which provided stable ECH conversion no less than 96% and selectivity around 97% in five consecutive runs. 3.2.2. Metal–Organic Framework Metal–organic framework (MOF), a combination between metal ions or clusters and interconnected organic ligands, is expected to be a good candidate of heterogeneous catalysts [43]. The distinctive features of adjustable structures, large surface area, and coordinated pore surface portray a vital role in yielding high CO2 sequestration and its effective conversion to valuable products [44,45]. Table 3 summarizes operational conditions for the synthesis of cyclic carbonates using MOFs. Liu et al. [1] synthesized In2(OH)(btc)(Hbtc)0.4(L)0.6·3H2O (Figure 8a) with TBAB as cocatalyst. The catalyst retained excellent recyclability with no significant change within five cycles of reaction. The catalyst also showed high selectivity toward size and shape of the substrate. PO showed the highest (77.9%) reactivity among substrates, which was likely caused by sterically hindrance for diffusion onto the pore of MOF. There are several researchers who have demonstrated that incorporation of accessible nitrogen donor sites, such as amine, imidazole, pyridine, tetrazole, or triazole into MOFs can drastically influence the CO2 sorption capacity and selectivity on account of dipole–quadrupole interactions between the CO2 molecule and the accessible nitrogen site [46–50].PDF Image | Green Pathway Utilizing CO2 Cycloaddition Reaction Epoxide
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