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to the absence of highly active catalysts), high pressures (due to the resultant unfavorable ther- modynamics), and thus most often require centralized production units to be economical. The main challenges associated with sustainable thermochemical CO2 reduction are related to plant decentralization, energy intermittency, and the development of earth-abundant, sustainable cat- alyst materials. While several technologies are already in place at the demonstrator-plant level, more active, stable/water-resistant, and earth-abundant catalysts are needed for economic viabil- ity. The successful development of such catalysts is dependent on continued research in targeted catalyst synthesis, theoretical methods, and operando characterization. Furthermore, entirely new chemistries are needed to convert CO2 to more complex molecules (e.g. those that involve C-C coupling). For more developed chemistries, new reaction and reactor concepts and plant design developments will be needed, especially to support the transition to de-localized production. In addition to being directly reduced, CO2 can also be reduced in a multistep pathway, in which it is first converted to CO, or included in higher ratios in syngas feeds. In Section 4, the adaptation of the established thermocatalytic conversion of syngas (CO, CO2, and H2) to sustain- able fuels and chemicals is explored. Syngas chemistry is a pillar of the petrochemical and synthetic fuel industries, but the high investment costs associated with the generation of syngas mean that production at large scale is currently required for economic operation. Towards the development of syngas chemistries for the sustainable production of fuels and chemicals, novel processes are needed that achieve high selectivity under low temperatures and pressures. In particular, robust design principles and structure-property relationships are needed to determine what controls activity and selectivity under variable conditions, which will rely on developments in microkinetic modeling and operando characterization. Furthermore, flexible-size, robust, and modular reactor concepts need to be developed for operation under changing, transient, and intermittent conditions. Besides carbon-based chemicals, nitrogen-based chemicals are also of great importance to our society. Section 5 covers two distinct routes to sustainable ammonia synthesis for use as fertilizer or fuel: thermal and electrochemical reduction of N2. The thermal route is currently used to pro- vide fertilizer that supports the world’s population but consumes a colossal >1% of global fossil fuel production. Switching to a sustainably produced H2 feedstock (e.g. from water electrolysis) would essentially solve this problem, but the currently implemented thermal catalytic process is not amenable to an intermittent H2 source or decentralized, small/medium scale operation. There- fore, future research is required to address the implications of intermittent operation, which may include the development of new ammonia synthesis catalysts that operate at lower temperature and pressure. The electrochemical reduction of N2 represents an alternative, but current catalysts are prohibitively inefficient. Critical research needs include the discovery of new electrode and electrolyte materials and design of efficient processes. A preliminary goal is to establish and adopt standards and protocols for product detection. While the preceding Sections largely focus on heterogeneous (electro-)catalytic reactions, 6PDF Image | sustainable production of fuels and chemicals
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