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quire significant improvements to serve as industrial-scale production platforms, exceptions also exist. For example, lactic acid production by Photanol is expected to be technology readiness level (TRL) 8 by the end of 2020. Thus, exploitation of photosynthetic microorganisms to function as microbial cell factories, which efficiently catalyze the direct production of solar fuels and chemicals, is becoming a reality, supported by advances in synthetic biology technologies. In contrast to photosynthetic microbial cell factories, which are type (ii) artificial photosyn- thesis, biohybrid systems (type iii)[5] involve a material–microorganism interaction; they couple non-photosynthetic microbial cell factories to, for instance, a photoelectrochemical stage (Figure 7.1B). The light harvesting stage provides the microorganisms (in a suspension or biofilm) with reducing equivalents in a suitable form, e.g. H2, electrons, or small carbon-based intermediates, to drive biosynthetic pathways that produce target chemicals. Thus, the potential of the biohybrid system lies in coupling the better efficiency of a photoelectrochemical stage with the ability of in vivo biocatalysis to generate virtually any product. Several proof-of-concept experiments on biohybrid systems have been recently presented. In one study, microorganisms metabolized H2, formed by in situ photoelectrochemical water splitting, to drive CO2 fixation and production of large alcohols with promising H2-to-alcohol conversion efficiencies [6]. In other work, bacteria or archaea fed directly on electrons produced by light- harvesting semiconductors to produce ammonia, methane, and other larger carbon compounds [7]. Additionally, in a recent collaboration between Evonik, Siemens, and Covestro, syngas was produced by H2O and CO2 electrolysis and supplied to microorganisms to produce alcohols by fermentation [8]. However, integrated devices are largely missing, and the TRLs are typically 2-3. Hence, it is clear that advances in both our fundamental understanding and device development are needed before real technological solutions can be realized. Two important challenges that remain to be addressed in these systems are the poor un- derstanding of the bacteria-electrode interface and electrogenesis. At present, protein-based photoelectrochemical cells for direct solar fuel production (type i) are not yet cost-competitive with fossil fuels due to issues with efficiency, durability, and scalability. Various cell architec- tures have been explored, including those using photosynthetic proteins, natural enzymes, or genetically engineered enzymes, combined with metallic or semiconductor electrodes [10]. Figure 7.2: Overview of biological to artificial systems high- lighting advantages and challenges of each approach. Repro- duced with permission from [9]. Having discussed the state of the art for several forms of artificial photosynthesis technologies, we present a summary comparing their attributes in Figure 7.2. 71PDF Image | sustainable production of fuels and chemicals
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