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10.2.2 Control volume S-C-S (CV-SCS) Here we identify the state of the art and challenges associated with connecting CO2 sources, CO2 capture, and CO2 sinks in a chain. We note three critical aspects that arise when considering this control volume: (i) the scale of the three processes, which can be expressed via the CO2 amount that is generated, separated, and used/stored, (ii) the intermittency (i.e. extent and type of dynamic operation) of the three processes, and (iii) the interconnection of the three processes with the external networks. Table 10.2 shows an overview of the status of CO2 extraction in terms of these features. Important challenges to consider moving forward include • Coupling processes that feature different scales while meeting the required specifications • Reconciling the dynamic characteristics of the capture technology with the intermittent oper- ation of the source and sink processes (e.g. decreasing the minimum load available, enabling fast switch between different operating conditions, enabling fast startup/shutdown) • Developing an optimal CO2 infrastructure that connects all relevant actors and tackles both the geographical diversity (e.g. in terms of CO2 purity) and temporal evolution (both on operational and long-term timescales) of the system • Integrating a sustainable and large supply of biomass and/or a large supply of undispatchable renewables Table 10.2: State of the art of the CO2 extraction in terms of important features for CV-CSC. State-of-the-art Commercial for 1- 2000 ktonCO2/year Commercial for 0.05-1 ktonCO2/year Scale Concentrated point sources Direct air capture Intermittent behavior Minimum load Rate of load change On/off Network Achievable performance is limited Achievable performance is limited Not available CO2 infrastructure Biomass supply Energy provision Not existing, with the exception of the CO2 pipeline in the US gulf area Well established, but maturity and sustainability are location dependent Limited to cases where source-capture-sink are located in the same plant 104PDF Image | sustainable production of fuels and chemicals
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