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price of electricity is significantly higher than the production cost and is forecast to increase in coming years [12]. As electricity is a commodity, its access is governed by price, not by cost, with the exception of systems that are not connected to the grid. While one potential strategy might be to couple RES to the chemical industry, which could provide grid-balancing services, the chemical industry cannot generally operate with daily intermittency; starting up and shutting down most current chemical processes takes hours or even days. Therefore, investments in RES conversion and storage technologies are of particular importance. Figure 11.2: Production cost of electricity by source. CSP: concentrated solar power, LNG: liquefied natural gas, PV: photovoltaic. Reproduced from [13]. 11.3.2 Economic feasibility In general, industry will only invest in showcases beyond proof of principle when there is a perspec- tive on economic feasibility. A crucial parameter in this context is the price of fossil carbon vs. the price of renewable carbon. While the ETS system that fixes the market CO2 price should link these prices, it has had mixed success in practice. Additionally, hydrocarbons and fertilizers are currently produced by very large (low CAPEX per ton) and very efficient (low OPEX) plants, at a size for which hydrogen electrolysis has not yet been demonstrated. Downscaling these plants to the size of the currently available water electrolysis systems becomes an economic bottleneck, as both the 113PDF Image | sustainable production of fuels and chemicals
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