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CAPEX per ton and the OPEX increase. In fact, around 70% of green hydrogen production costs in the case of continuous operation are OPEX. Furthermore, as the OPEX is largely composed of electricity prices, it follows that defossilization of the chemical industry is highly dependent on the price of electricity. The CAPEX/kWh will also become significant if these plants are only operated when access to intermittent renewable electricity is available, jeopardizing the investment opportunity and posing challenges to using the chemical industry for grid-balancing. 11.4 Future research needs Below, several objectives that will be crucial in the move towards a sustainable future are discussed. From a time-horizon point of view, such needs may be considered in the short, medium, or long term. 11.4.1 Optimization and integration of RES into current processes and devel- opment of hybrid systems In the short term, significant savings can be achieved by optimizing current processes to be com- patible with RES. In some cases, integration of RES may consist of implementing hybrid systems, in which the heat of reaction is provided by electricity. For example, if SMR technology were hy- bridized, the amount of CO2 emitted per ton of hydrogen produced could be reduced from ∼9-10 to 5 [14]. Another short-term strategy is the adaptation of current SMR plants to produce blue hydrogen by mineralizing or storing any CO2 produced by the plant (See Section 10 for details). The production costs of this hybrid process and the related carbon capture and sequestration may be lower than water electrolysis costs today. This technology is ideal for the period of transition from fossil fuels to RES, as it continues to provide the required volume of hydrogen while the capacity for green hydrogen production by electrolysis can be expanded. 11.4.2 Development of fully-integrated demonstration projects at industrially relevant scales Scaling up a technology, such as water electrolysis, is only one of the challenges associated with its successful and complete integration into the energy ecosystem (also see Section 9). To reach the final product, the entire chain must be integrated and demonstrated. Therefore, an important goal in the mid-term future is the development of demonstration projects that are fully integrated and operate at industrially relevant scales. Primary targets for such demonstration projects could be the reduction of CO2 to hydrocarbons/methanol and N2 to fertilizers using green hydrogen, as these products constitute key components in the chemical industry. Several important purposes of these demonstration projects are as follows: 114PDF Image | sustainable production of fuels and chemicals
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