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Energies 2021, 14, 4103 18 of 28 Table 5. Annual COP, energy usage, and emissions (TEWI) of the investigated systems at the selected locations when applying the leveled charging strategy. Strategy Variable/Location Stockholm Copenhagen Tromsø Annual COP [-] Annual Energy Annual Emissions Usage [MWh· y−1] [Tonne CO2-eq· y−1] SC PC EJ SC PC EJ SC PC EJ Leveled Helsinki charging Munich Rome Athens Madrid Stockholm Copenhagen Tromsø Aggressive Helsinki charging Munich Rome Athens Madrid 4.68 4.75 4.85 278.65 4.86 4.92 5.01 240.64 4.12 4.16 4.27 333.56 4.48 4.55 4.64 311.25 4.86 4.93 5.03 253.35 5.49 5.61 5.71 206.74 5.62 5.76 5.85 213.01 5.19 5.30 5.40 237.44 4.43 4.45 4.64 293.56 4.50 4.61 4.80 254.05 3.88 3.96 4.14 349.94 4.17 4.28 4.46 327.84 4.51 4.65 4.82 267.18 5.03 5.20 5.40 218.57 5.19 5.34 5.55 224.95 4.82 4.94 5.15 250.07 277.19 268.32 240.90 233.61 331.32 319.54 308.52 298.82 252.57 244.84 205.60 199.60 210.34 203.40 235.76 227.15 290.39 276.11 252.64 240.35 345.25 328.18 323.07 307.26 264.57 251.45 217.10 206.23 221.68 209.86 247.09 234.02 3.39 3.37 27.00 27.02 6.38 6.34 27.74 27.50 88.72 88.44 48.21 47.95 3.26 26.21 6.11 26.64 85.73 46.55 123.30 47.75 3.36 26.96 6.28 27.39 88.05 88.05 127.22 49.19 129.18 49.91 3.57 28.50 6.69 29.22 93.56 50.97 136.36 52.56 127.51 49.55 3.53 28.34 6.61 28.80 92.64 92.64 134.38 51.94 The results in Table 5 illustrate that the ambient temperatures at each location highly in- fluence annual energy consumption. The lowest annual energy consumption was achieved in the warmest city, Rome, where the range of consumption was recorded from 199.60 to 218.57 MWh· y−1 for all investigated cases. In the coldest city, Tromsø, the annual energy consumption was found to approximately 60% higher, in the range of 319.54 to 349.94 MWh· y−1. When comparing results obtained with the two different charging strategies, it can be concluded that the highest annual COPs were achieved when applying the leveled charging strategy. Furthermore, results from aggressive charging with the best design in terms of COP, EJ, are comparable to the COPs obtained with SC when applying leveled charging. For instance, Munich achieved an annual COP of 4.86 with SC (leveled charging) and 4.82 with EJ (aggressive charging). Thus, DHW control strategy rather than system design appears to be the largest influence factor on COP and energy consumption at each investigated location. The annual global warming impact from each system, in terms ton CO2-eq emission, is included in Table 5. A large variation in emission is observed at the different locations, in which Stockholm displays the lowest emission values of approximately 3 tons CO2-eq per year. This amounts to approximately 2.5% of the related emissions in Athens, which are between 123 to 129 tonne per year, dependent on system design. Energy savings and emission reductions associated with installing the SC design in place of the existing solution (boiler + separate AC chiller) are shown in Figure 11. The largest reduction of emissions is achieved in Athens and Rome, where between 310 to 380 tonnes CO2-eq can be prevented on an annual basis. In terms of energy utilization, the largest savings were achieved in the Scandinavian locations, ranging from 850 to 1000 MWh·y−1. Information related to energy savings and emission reduction for PC and EJ can be found in Appendix Table A1. 4.3. Economical Analysis The total capital cost of the considered designs is listed in Table 6. As can be observed from the table, the investment cost related to compressors and heat exchanger represent the majority of the capital cost in all cases. When considering all designs, the total capital cost for each of the suggested designs is within a range of ±2.5%.PDF Image | Evaluation of Integrated Concepts with CO2 for Heating
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