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mildly flammable refrigerants with ultra-low GWP are undergoing research activity and field trials for the final step. In intermodal refrigerated containers, some manufacturers have proposed R-513A as an alternative to HFC-134a. Also, the first production units running on closed loop R-744 have entered the market. R-744 is attractive for its non-flammable characteristics and ultra-low GWP. The challenge in finding a comparable alternative mainly lies in the efficiency at moderate and high ambient temperatures. Interest in flammable refrigerants as possible longer term, ultra-low GWP solutions, is evident given the significant activity in codes and standards updates and in the formation of the ISO 20854 working group for thermal containers. At the same time, flammability mitigation still represents a major challenge. No product solutions are currently available in transport applications that rely on flammable refrigerants. The shipping industry is another sector that has made design changes to incorporate new refrigerants. Some new ships now use R-717 or R-744 either alone or in cascade, while the majority of the global fleet (other than those trading in Europe) will likely continue to operate using HCFC-22. Although railway air conditioning applications continue to relying heavily on HFC-134a and R- 407C, alternatives such as R-513A and R-449A are being evaluated. Also, alternative air cycles and R-744 systems are being tested in niche applications. Air-to-air air conditioners and heat pumps Air conditioners, including reversible air heating heat pumps (generally defined as “reversible heat pumps”), range in size from 1 kW to 1,100 kW although the majority are less than 70 kW. The most populous are non-ducted single splits, which are produced in excess of 110 million units per year. All products sold within non-Article 5 countries use non-ODS refrigerants. There is an increasing proportion of production of air conditioners in Article 5 countries that do not use HCFCs. Approximately one half of all units produced globally use non-ODS refrigerants. Enterprises within non-Article 5 regions are continuing to evaluate and develop products with various HFC/unsaturated HFC blends, such as those comprising HFC-32, HFC-125, HFC-134a, HFC-1234yf and HFC-1234ze. In addition to the introduction of HFC-32 in residential split air conditioners in Japan, increased production and uptake is continuing in South East Asia, India, and in Europe. Further production lines conversion to HC-290 in China is underway, and (except for small and portable units) there is limited market introduction. This is contributed to by the restrictive safety standard requirements for certain product groups. In India, production of HC- 290 split air conditioners is continuing, with production line conversions underway in several other, high ambient, countries. Some enterprises within the Middle East still see R-407C and HFC-134a as favourable alternatives to HCFC-22. Acknowledging that almost all medium and low GWP alternatives are flammable, there has been significant progress with the development of new requirements for safety standards, although as yet the published standards remain restrictive for several low GWP refrigerants. Numerous research activities are investigating a variety of aspects related to the application of flammable refrigerants in air conditioning equipment. Water and space heating heat pumps Within the category of water and space heating heat pumps there are heat pump water heaters, space heating heat pumps, and combined space and hot water heat pumps. The required warm water temperature affects the selection of refrigerant. For the same source temperature, heat pump 2018 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 11PDF Image | Heat Pumps Technical Options
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