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uncommon in the chiller field. However, several research projects remain active and developmental companies have moved towards commercialization. A product was announced in 2014 and again in 2015 using water as the refrigerant and additional product development has followed. Applications for water as a refrigerant can chill water or produce an ice slurry by direct evaporation from a pool of water. R-718 systems carry a cost premium above conventional systems. The higher costs are inherent and are associated with the large physical size of water vapour chillers and the complexity of the compressor technology, which includes both axial and multi-stage centrifugal compressors. Several developmental chillers and commercial vacuum ice makers have been demonstrated in Europe, the Middle East, and South Africa including deep mine refrigeration (Jahn, 1996), (Ophir, 2008), (Sheer, 2001), (Calm, 2011). They also are used in desalination plants (Calm, 2006) and ice making. 9.4 Options for existing chiller equipment The preceding sections cover the options for new chillers, and gives a view of the changes that are occurring in chiller markets. Chillers that are already installed and employ CFCs, HCFCs, and HFCs have to be supported in one of the following ways Retain/Contain: continued operation with stocked and/or reclaimed inventories in conjunction with containment procedures and equipment modifications to reduce emissions. Retrofit: modification to allow operation with alternative refrigerants (lower GWP HFCs where permitted) depending on applicable regulations. Replace: early retirement/replacement with new chillers (preferably having higher efficiency which reduces energy-related climate impact) using allowed refrigerants or not-in-kind alternatives, The retrofit options depend on the specific refrigerant for which the chiller was originally designed. When any retrofit is performed, it is recommended that the machinery room be upgraded to the requirements of the latest edition of safety standards such as ASHRAE 15 (ASHRAE a, 2016), and EN 378 (EN, 2016 b) or international standards such as ISO 5149 (ISO, 2014). It is also recommended that the manufacturers of the equipment be consulted in any retrofit program. Retrofit of chillers that use a non-flammable refrigerant with a flammable refrigerant is especially problematic, if not unlikely, especially if the chiller is located indoors. Substantial modifications to the equipment and to the machinery room would be needed. For example, the pressure vessels and piping codes, such as the Pressure Equipment Directive (PED) in Europe, places additional requirements on the equipment design, materials, construction and inspection. Machinery rooms must be modified to deal with the potential of large charges of a flammable refrigerant as per the local building codes. These issues add significant cost and clouds the economic feasibility of a retrofit. Therefore non- flammable alternatives are highly desired for retrofits. 9.4.1 Positive displacement chillers A positive displacement compressor inherently can be applied to handle a number of different refrigerants and pressure ratios in a chiller if its motor has adequate power, the compressor, tubing, heat exchangers, and other components can meet pressure codes and regulations with the refrigerants, and the system materials and lubricant are compatible with the refrigerants. Despite this flexibility, there remain a number of issues in retrofitting positive displacement chillers to operate with new refrigerants. These issues were discussed in the 2014 RTOC Assessment Report. However, larger capacity screw compressor installations can represent a large capital investment 2018 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 181PDF Image | Heat Pumps Technical Options
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