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Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV) The Hybrid Electric Vehicle applies both a combustion engine and an electric motor, used to recuperate the kinetic energy of the vehicle which is stored in a battery. The electric motor is also used to support the conventional engine and to enable the vehicle to travel short distances in a pure electric mode. These vehicles usually adopt an electric hermetic compressor while the rest of the system remains unchanged. Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV) The Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle usually has larger batteries that can be charged while connecting the vehicle to the electric power network (plug-in), in this way enabling the vehicle to drive longer distances (e.g. 50 km) in a pure electric mode. The MAC system is based on an electric compressor and is usually used also to thermally control the battery especially during charge phases, although, in some instances, two separate systems may be employed. The system loop integrates a chiller (refrigerant to coolant) or a direct expansion evaporator, either conventional for air-cooling or plate coupled to the battery array for battery thermal management. The refrigerant charge of such a system is usually about 30% to 50% higher than that of a conventional system. The cabin heating is ensured by the engine waste heat or, when operated in a pure electric mode, by an electric heater or a heat pump. The heating and air conditioning function may substantially affect the pure electric driving range reducing it by up to 50% (Denso, 2017, Koehler, 2018; Westerloh, 2019). Battery Electric Vehicles (BEV) The Battery Electric Vehicles MAC system is very similar to the system adopted for PHEV with the exception that there is a very low amount of waste heat produced. To overcome this fact, a larger electric heater was used in the past. For newer BEVs, the MAC system is usually designed to also include the heat pump function. On such a vehicle, the heating and air conditioning functions are even more relevant in determining the “real world” driving range that can be reduced by up to 40% here (Denso, 2017, Koehler, 2018; Westerloh, 2019). Similar to PHEVs the MAC system loop integrates a chiller (refrigerant to coolant) or a direct expansion evaporator, integrated in the battery pack to enable the battery cooling. The refrigerant charge is usually about 30% to 50% higher than the one used in a conventional system, due to use of technology selected to cool the battery (indirect or direct expansion). Dual loop systems (with liquid cooled condensers and liquid heated evaporators) can be adopted to reduce the refrigerant charge and enable higher flexibility, lowering the risk of dispersion in case of an accident. To date, secondary loop systems have started to be applied on some premium cars additionally to the pure presentation as a viable technology option (see e.g., Menken, 2016). Heavy-duty trucks The heavy-duty trucks adopt a main system that is based on the same concept as used in light duty vehicles, albeit with a slightly higher refrigerant charge, due to the longer distance between the compressor and the cabin. To ensure comfort when the truck is parked, an auxiliary air conditioning system is very often adopted. This system is usually quite similar to domestic air conditioning systems with an external condenser, an internal cooling and ventilation unit as well as an auxiliary electric compressor. At present, heavy-duty truck MAC systems rely on HFC- 134a, although HFO-1234yf is allowed for some truck classes (see e.g., USEPA, 2016a). Buses and coaches Buses and coaches are mass transit vehicles with air-conditioning systems that are larger in size with a higher cooling capacity and larger refrigerant charges than passenger cars. They also operate over a wide range of ambient temperatures, from -30oC to 50oC. These systems are 192 2018 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment ReportPDF Image | Heat Pumps Technical Options
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