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138 M.B. Blarke et al. / Energy and Buildings 50 (2012) 128–138 Rc (improves from −0.11 to 0.46), lower CO2 emissions (reduced to zero), and lower operational costs (reduced by 72%). The findings provide initial support for the hypothesis that if electricity generated by intermittent sources is destined for thermal end-uses, then technologies allowing for immediate con- version to thermal energy and thermal storage close to these end-uses, will be more cost-effective in meeting Smart Grid enabling objectives than any electro-chemical and mechanical stor- age option. As for technical model and assumptions, related experimental and numerical studies suggest that the optimization of simulta- neous heating and cooling systems is very delicate [9,10,22]. The system COP depends on multiple parameters such as compres- sor speed and efficiency, water inlet temperature and flow rates, pumping power, heat exchanger dimensions and heat transfer coef- ficients. In this study, compressor work as well as output cooling and heating capacities are constant. Under these conditions, the system COP at a given discharge pressure become a function of the CO2 evaporator temperature and the gas cooler outlet temperature only, achieving a system COP for dual-mode operation of 6.7. While this is within the range of previous results, experimental results, with specified conditions and considering the prevailing difference in test facilities, will help to formulate a more precise TB model for simultaneous heating and cooling. In future research, we will investigate both the empirical validity in terms of the operational claims for the TB, as well as the com- parative techno-economic consequences for a more extensive set of options and locations. In perspective, in order for real-time tariffs to be available to consumers and thus facilitate the development of Smart Grid enabling technologies, such as the TB, utilities must act to offer the necessary tariff schedules. Acknowledgements The findings are part of the results of the research project “Intermittency-friendly and super-efficient tri-generation (com- bined production of electricity, heating, and cooling) to support large-scale penetration of renewable sources in buildings and cities” supported financially by University of California’s Cen- ter for Information Technology Research in the Interest of Society (CITRIS). We are furthermore grateful for the finan- cial support for research exchange and visits between Denmark and USA provided by the Danish Ministry of Science, Tech- nology, and Innovation. Also, we would like to acknowledge Innovation Center Denmark for facilitating research into Smart Grids, thus strengthening the international collaboration in this field. References [1] M.B. Blarke, Towards an intermittency-friendly energy system: Comparing electric boilers and heat pumps in distributed cogeneration, Applied Energy 91 (2012) 349–365. [2] Electronics Industry Market Research and Knowledge Network, Enabling Tech- nologies for the Smart Grid, 2011. [3] Pike Research, Smart Grid Investment in Europe to Total $80 Billion by 2020, 2011. [4] Pike Research, Smart Grid Managed Services. Infrastructure, Application, and Business Process Outsourcing for Smart Grid Utilities: Market Analysis and Forecasts, 2010. [5] TechNavio, Global Smart Grid Energy Storage Market 2009–2013, 2009. [6] M.B. Blarke, E. Dotzauer, Intermittency-friendly and high-efficiency cogenera- tion: operational optimisation of cogeneration with compression heat pump, flue gas heat recovery, and intermediate cold storage, Energy 36 (2011) 6867–6878. [7] W. Adriansyah, Combined air conditioning and tap water heating plant using CO2 as refrigerant, Energy and Buildings 36 (2004) 690–695. [8] J. Stene, Residential CO2 heat pump system for combined space heating and hot water heating, International Journal of Refrigeration 28 (2005) 1259–1265. [9] P. Byrne, J. Miriel, Y. Lenat, Design and simulation of a heat pump for simulta- neous heating and cooling using HFC or CO2 as a working fluid, International Journal of Refrigeration 32 (2009) 1711–1723. [10] J. Sarkar, S. Bhattacharyya, M. Ramgopal, Experimental investigation of trans- critical CO2 heat pump for simultaneous water cooling and heating, Thermal Science 14 (2010) 57–64. [11] H. Chen, W.L. Lee, Combined space cooling and water heating system for Hong Kong residences, Energy and Buildings 42 (2010) 243–250. [12] M.B. Blarke, COMPOSE http://energyinteractive.net, 2011. [13] D. Connolly, H. Lund, B.V. Mathiesen, M. 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