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Minerals 2020, 10, 284 8 of 34 through evaporation or evapotranspiration. In this case, the groundwater table is at or near the land surface at the playa. Throughflow playas are playas where some groundwater may pass out of the basin to the next basin, and the groundwater table may be at or near the land surface as well. Recharge playas are playas where surface water recharges through the playa to the groundwater that is far below the land surface. Bristol and Cadiz Dry lakes in this paper are defined as discharge playa, and DDL is likely a throughflow playa, as discussed below. Cadiz Dry Lake may have been a throughflow playa or been connected to BDL through surface flow in the past. Geothermal water is defined as meteoric water that has traveled deeply into the earth and been heated by magmatic forces at depth and potentially returned to the surface. Geothermal water generally will have greater water–rock interaction and greater heating than thermal water. Thermal water is meteoric water that is heated by long, deep travel paths in aquifers and heated by the thermal gradient of the Earth. Thermal water is generally cooler than geothermal water but may not always be. 2.3. Hydrology of Barstow-Bristol Trough The main hydrologic, sedimentologic, and chemical characteristics of the three playas in the Barstow-Bristol Trough are summarized in Table 1. Bristol Dry Lake is separated from CDL and DDL by projecting arms of the Marble and Calumet mountain ranges (Figure 1). At present, each of the three subbasins have completely separate surface internal drainage. Cadiz Dry Lake currently has the lowest surface elevation of the three playas (165 m above sea level), with BDL approximately 15 m and DDL approximately 22 m higher than CDL, respectively. However, the projecting arms of the mountains separating BDL and CDL are at present only approximately 15 m higher than the lowest point in BDL. It has been suggested that surface and groundwater has flowed between BDL and CDL during pre-Holocene time [38] and the similarity of the brine chemistries supports this suggestion. Unfortunately, at the present time, there are not enough data to fully assess the flow between the basins. A fourth basin, Alkali Dry Lake, is separated in terms of surface flow from BDL by Amboy Crater and its associated basalt flows Alkali Dry Lake and BDL are functionally a single groundwater basin with different surface drainages since Amboy Crater erupted. No chemistry data are available for Alkali Dry Lake because it is located on the twenty-nine Palms Air Force Base but given that the basin has for most of its history has been undivided, one can postulate that the brine is likely to also be a Na–Ca–Cl brine. Given that Alkali Dry Lake formed relatively recently, for most of the history of the BDL basin, the total drainage area into BDL (approximately 3500 km2) was significantly greater than it is today (Figure 1). Even with this reduced current drainage area, the present total drainage area into BDL, excluding drainage from CDL and Alkali Dry Lake, is approximately 2200 km2. Thompson [39] indicated that the groundwater table at both BDL and CDL were close to, or at the surface, whereas [40] indicated that in 2010 that the water table was many meters below the land surface near the playa edge. This likely indicates that decades of pumping have changed the natural conditions in both basins. Shafer [38], and [41], using essentially the same data as [38], analyzed chemical groundwater data and water table information mostly from wells drilled in the alluvial fans in the Bristol and Cadiz Basins (Figures 3 and 4). Although these data are sparse in crucial places, the general surface of the water table was defined by [38], with modifications by [26]. Shafer [38] did not state whether the groundwater system is confined or unconfined but based on the drillers logs of the lithologies of the test wells and the shallow depth to static water, it is likely an unconfined system. Unconfined groundwater systems are common in arid, porous alluvial fan systems. The mountains around all three basins are relatively low and all have extensive alluvial fans, so that the slope of the groundwater table is relatively low near the playas. This is different to some playas like Death Valley, California and Dixie Valley, Nevada, where fault-bounded mountain ranges are relatively steep and close to the edges of the playas [24].PDF Image | Bristol Dry Lake Brine Compared to Brines from Cadiz
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