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Table 3 Various components of LIBs, materials used and their meritsa. P. Meshram et al. / Hydrometallurgy 150 (2014) 192–208 195 Component Cathode Anode Electrolyte Plastic case Outer casing Copper foil Aluminium foil Polymer foil & electrolyte Solvent Wt.% of the total weight of the battery 39.1 ± 1.1 22.9 ± 0.7 10.5 ± 1.1 8.9 ± 0.3 6.1 ± 0.6 5.2 ± 0.4 4.7 ± 0.2 Material LiCoO2 LiMn2O4 LiNiO2 LiFePO4 Li2FePO4F LiCo1/3Ni1/3Mn1/3O Li(LiaNixMnyCoz)O2 Carbon Hard carbon Lithium salt like LiPF6, Li[PF3(C2F5)3] or LiBC4O8 in organic solvents Polyethylene terephthalate layers, a polymer layer and a polypropylene layer, layers of carbonized plastic Stainless steel, aluminium Copper Aluminium Polyethylene, polypropylene or composite polyethylene/polypropylene films Ethylene carbonate, dimethyl carbonate & diethyl carbonate Aluminium and copper Structure Layered Spinel Layered Properties/Merits High structural stability and can be cycled for N500 times with 80–90% capacity retention Attractive for ecological and economic reasons; discharges ~3 V Cheaper & possesses higher energy density (15% higher by volume, 20% higher by weight), but less stable & less ordered as compared to LiCoO2 Suitable for biomedical applications because of higher safety levels and lower cost Possesses high capacity with structural and thermal stability, and safe to use Low cost and availability. It has the ability to reversibly absorb and release large quantity of Li (Li:C = 1:6) Withstands high temperature and possesses high mobility of Li ions Hermetically sealed battery body which converts chemical energy to electrical energy in order to generate current ~14 μm thick ~20 μm thick Use of 3–8 μm layers (PP/PE/PP) with 50% porosity Non-aqueous Electrical contact a Wakihara and Yamamoto (1998), Gaines and Cuenca (2000), Nazri and Pistoia (2004) Paulino et al., (2008) and Fergus (2010). 2.0 ± 0.5 Conductive Olivine Olivine Layered/spinel Layered/spinel Graphite Microspheres The active mass (cathode, anode and electrolyte) of LIBs comprises of almost 40% of the weight whereas ~30% (wt) of these components are carbon (anode). A number of chemical species in the cathode material within the lithium-ion family have been reported including the type, structure of the materials used and their electrochemical properties which are listed in Table 3. Generally LIBs have a short life of 2–3 years whether they are used or not. The spent batteries are a good source of several metals like Li, Co, Ni, Co, Mn etc. 3. Extraction of lithium from primary resources 3.1. Lithium extraction from minerals/clays Lithium is extracted from its minerals by two processes — acid and alkaline though chlorination is also attempted in some cases. Averill Table 4 Lithium extraction from its minerals/clays by acid process. and Olson (1978) have reviewed methods and techniques for the extraction of lithium from ores, brines and clays. Processes followed for the extraction of lithium from different resources have also been compiled in detail by Garrett (2004). In order to process ores/concentrates, acid digestion with H2SO4 may be followed for decomposition of the silicate structure at 250–400 °C which is suitable for the processing of lepidolite, amblygonite and zinnwaldite (Kondás and Jandová, 2006). In the sulfate process lithium minerals such as lepidolite are decomposed at high temperature in the presence of potassium and/or sodium sulfate. Alkali digestion is suitable for the decomposition of spodumene and lepidolite largely by the treat- ment of potassium carbonate to produce lithium hydroxide. In the alka- line/gypsum process the mineral is reacted with limestone or a mixture of calcium sulfate with calcium oxide and/or hydroxide by heating to convert silicate to soluble lithium aluminate from which LiOH or Li2CO3 Raw material Lepidolite conc. Lepidolite conc. Lepidolite conc. Lepidolite conc. Zinnwaldite conc. Petalite/Lepidolite Spodumene Spodumene Montmorillonite clay % Li 2.0 2.0 2.55 1.79 0.96 1.9 4.21 2.81 1.2% Li2O Experimental conditions %Li Extraction 91.6 ~90 90.4 85 (open system) 93 (closed system) N90 97.3 90 96 90 Li2CO3 purity (%) – N 99.5 – – N90 99 – ~ 99.6 Li2SO4 References Yan et al. (2012a) Yan et al. (2012b) Luong et al. (2013) Luong et al. (2014) Siame and Pascoe (2011) Sitando and Crouse (2012) Mcketta (1988), Tahil (2010) Chen et al. (2011a, 2011b), Clarke (2013) Amer (2008) Pre-treatment Sulfation roasting Salt roasting with Na2SO4 + CaCl2 Sulfation roasting Na2SO4:Li molar ratio = 2:1 Roasting with iron sulfate Roasting with sodium sulfate Calcination Roasting (H2SO4) Calcination Roasting (H2SO4) Roasting & H2SO4 leaching Without roasting Roasting Time temp. (°C) (h) 850 0.5 880 0.5 1000 0.5 850 1.5 850 1 1100 2 300 1 1100 1 250 0.167 1050–1090 0.5 – – Water leaching L/S ratio 2.5:1 0.8:1 15:1 1:1 10:1 7.5/1 Leaching & precipitation 1:4 5:1 (H2SO4 leach) Temp. (°C) Time (h) Room temp. 0.5 (RT) RT 0.5 85 3 RT 1 RT 0.5 50 1 – – 225 1 250 1.5PDF Image | Extraction of lithium from primary and secondary sources
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Product and Development Focus for Infinity Turbine
ORC Waste Heat Turbine and ORC System Build Plans: All turbine plans are $10,000 each. This allows you to build a system and then consider licensing for production after you have completed and tested a unit.Redox Flow Battery Technology: With the advent of the new USA tax credits for producing and selling batteries ($35/kW) we are focussing on a simple flow battery using shipping containers as the modular electrolyte storage units with tax credits up to $140,000 per system. Our main focus is on the salt battery. This battery can be used for both thermal and electrical storage applications. We call it the Cogeneration Battery or Cogen Battery. One project is converting salt (brine) based water conditioners to simultaneously produce power. In addition, there are many opportunities to extract Lithium from brine (salt lakes, groundwater, and producer water).Salt water or brine are huge sources for lithium. Most of the worlds lithium is acquired from a brine source. It's even in seawater in a low concentration. Brine is also a byproduct of huge powerplants, which can now use that as an electrolyte and a huge flow battery (which allows storage at the source).We welcome any business and equipment inquiries, as well as licensing our turbines for manufacturing.CONTACT TEL: 608-238-6001 Email: greg@infinityturbine.com (Standard Web Page)