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Remote Sens. 2022, 14, 1383 drogeological units (HUs). These enable the spatial distribution of the geology either at outcrop for 2D maps or in terms of volumes (3D models) to be attributed. The table in Appendix A illustrates how the 16 lithologies are parametrised based on experience de- rived from working on other salars and literature values [48]. To be noted, the Geological Description in the table is derived from geo-nsdi.er.usgs.gov/metadata/open-file/95- 11 of 22 494/metadata.html (accessed 01 February 2022). In particular, the geology is parametrised using 16 hydrogeological units (HUs; see Appendix A). Each geological unit is given a hydraulic conductivity along with a porosity value. Both are based on experience or back- existing literature, as performed for the current test case [38–40]. This was refined as the ground knowledge supplemented by literature values and are used as base variables to modelling proceeded to keep the relative values, but the absolute values were adjusted to feed into the modelling process. These values are then passed to the next and final frame- ensure credible modelling results. work. Figure 9. Hydrogeological processing framework. Figure 9. Hydrogeological processing framework. This framework has been exploited for the current test case. The mapping between the 5. Mass Balance Derivation geological units and their hydrogeological properties is undertaken by identifying hydroge- The final stage of the technical framework has the aim of quantifying the amount of ological units (HUs). These enable the spatial distribution of the geology either at outcrop lithium reaching the salar and how long it takes to accumulate. The two methods by which for 2D maps or in terms of volumes (3D models) to be attributed. The table in Appendix A lithium is transported through the watershed are surface water and groundwater. The illustrates how the 16 lithologies are parametrised based on experience derived from work- two are interrelated, with groundwater supplying surface water in the dry season. There- ing on other salars and literature values [48]. To be noted, the Geological Description in fore, on a long-term basis (~100,000 years [28]), it is necessary to consider how groundwa- the table is derived from geo-nsdi.er.usgs.gov/metadata/open-file/95-494/metadata.html ter moves through the system and interacts with the rock mass to leach lithium. To un- (accessed 1 February 2022). In particular, the geology is parametrised using 16 hydrogeo- derstand the groundwater component, a groundwater flow and particle tracking model logical units (HUs; see Appendix A). Each geological unit is given a hydraulic conductivity of the Uyuni watershed have been developed. These are built on the hydrogeological un- along with a porosity value. Both are based on experience or background knowledge derstanding of the catchment which in turn is built on the geological characterisation. The supplemented by literature values and are used as base variables to feed into the modelling framework is shown in Figure 10, and it is built on a sequence of processing steps as fol- process. These values are then passed to the next and final framework. lows: recharge calculation, e.g., ZOODRM [49]; groundwater flow and velocities, e.g., 5M. MODasFsLBOaWlan[c5e0]D; aenridvaptaiortnicle tracking, e.g., MODPATH [51]. They take as input several EO products derived in previous stages. The final stage of the technical framework has the aim of quantifying the amount of lithium reaching the salar and how long it takes to accumulate. The two methods by which lithium is transported through the watershed are surface water and groundwater. The two are interrelated, with groundwater supplying surface water in the dry season. Therefore, on a long-term basis (~100,000 years [28]), it is necessary to consider how groundwater moves through the system and interacts with the rock mass to leach lithium. To understand the groundwater component, a groundwater flow and particle tracking model of the Uyuni watershed have been developed. These are built on the hydrogeological understanding of the catchment which in turn is built on the geological characterisation. The framework is shown in Figure 10, and it is built on a sequence of processing steps as follows: recharge calculation, e.g., ZOODRM [49]; groundwater flow and velocities, e.g., MODFLOW [50]; and particle tracking, e.g., MODPATH [51]. They take as input several EO products derived in previous stages. Fluxes from groundwater and surface water masses are computed with the output of the modelling and ground data, respectively. They are required to compute the final mass accumulation in the salt lake. This framework has been exploited for the current test case as described in the following. It is to be noted that the ZOODRM model has not been applied in this case due to the availability of gridded rainfall for Bolivia providing a suitable first guestimate of recharge. It is thought that this method of estimating recharge is commensurate with the complexity of the model and confidence of the other data sources. Once the groundwater model has been developed further and ground-truthedPDF Image | Lithium Brine Deposit Formation
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