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Stringfellow and Dobson et al., 2007; Liu et al., 2015; Li et al., 2018). Adsorbed lithium is typically recovered by use of an acid stripping solution, such as hydrochloric acid, and the sorbent is regenerated or cycled for repeated use. 3.3.1 Aluminum hydroxides Sorbents made from aluminum hydroxides (AlOH) have been shown to preferentially adsorb lithium (Lee and Bauman, 1978, 1979, 1980, 1982). Lithium ions lie in the octahedral voids of the AlOH layers (Besserguenev et al., 1997; Isupov, 1999; Wang et al., 2013). Crystalline aluminum trihydroxides (Al(OH)3), such as gibbsite, bayerite, and nordstrandite, can form layered intercalation matrices with lithium (Bauman and Burba, 1997; Besserguenev et al., 1997; Isupov, 1999; Wang et al., 2013). Amorphous Al(OH)3 can be reacted with lithium chloride at elevated temperature to form crystalline LiCl·2Al(OH)3, which can adsorb lithium ion from lithium-containing brines (Lee and Bauman, 1982; Burba, 1984). One effective variant of AlOH sorbents are layered lithium-aluminum double hydroxides, which have been demonstrated as effective for removal of lithium for complex solutions including geothermal brines (Fogg and O'Hare, 1999; Fogg et al., 2002; Menzheres et al., 2004; Wang et al., 2013; Yu et al., 2015; Qu et al., 2016; Paranthaman et al., 2017; Li et al., 2018; Wu et al., 2019; Hu et al., 2020; Jiang et al., 2020). Challenges to full-scale implementation of AlOH sorbents in Salton Sea geothermal brines include the need to control interference from co-occurring metals and the stability of the sorbent over time, especially during extraction of the sorbed lithium and regeneration of the sorbent (Harrison, 2014; Harrison et al., 2014; Featherstone et al., 2019; Wu et al., 2019). Modifications of the AlOH sorbents include approaches to improve sorbent stability and robustness (Burba et al., 2014; Burba et al., 2015). Ion-exchange resins can be used to stabilize AlOH sorbents (Lee and Bauman, 1978, 1979, 1980, 1982; Jiang et al., 2020). Burba et al. (2015) proposed mixing a lithium aluminate intercalate with up to 25% by weight of a polymer to form a stable matrix appropriate for use in ion-exchange columns. Wu et al. (2019) included iron in the formulation of layered aluminum double hydroxide chloride sorbents to improve sorbent stability. AlOH-based sorbents have been in development for many years and have served as the lithium extraction technology for a number of pilot and proposed full-scale direct lithium extraction ventures (EnergySource, 2012; Harrison et al., 2014; Featherstone et al., 2019; EnergySource Minerals, 2021). Numerous studies have shown that AlOH-based sorbents are effective at extracting lithium from geothermal brines, but full-scale commercial application of these sorbents still has not been proven. 3.3.2 Manganese oxides Manganese oxides (MnOx) have been demonstrated to preferentially adsorb lithium from seawater (Ooi et al., 1986; Miyai et al., 1988). In the case of MnOx sorbents, the sorbents are often spinel structures and are usually cubic close-packed oxides (Feng et al., 1992; Feng et al., 1999; Zhang et al., 2017; Liu et al., 2019; Xu et al., 2021). For the preparation of manganese oxide porous crystals, metal ions can be used as templates to control the pore dimensions in various synthesis processes (Figure 1) (Feng et al., 1999). Manganese oxides show ion sieve properties and the spinel-type ion sieves have effective pore radii of 0.07 nm, which makes them selective for the adsorption of lithium (Feng et al., 1999). Materials that are commonly used as templates (Figure 1) for MnOx designed for lithium adsorption include lithium and magnesium; however, other metals may be added (Feng et al., 1993; Tian et al., 2010; Chaban et al., 2016; Levy et al., 2017; Chaban et al., 2019). Studies have shown that MnOx sorbents are very selective for lithium over manganese, calcium, strontium, barium, sodium, and potassium (Feng et al., 1999; Xu et al., 2021). It has been established that MnOx crystals made with magnesium or lithium as the template metal (Figure 1) offer the best selectivity for lithium over monovalent and divalent cations (e.g., Feng et al., 1992; Feng et al., 1993; Chitrakar et al., 2002; Özgür, 2010; Zhang et al., 2010). Recepoglu et al. (2017) investigated the adsorption of lithium from geothermal water using both powdery and granulated forms of lambda-MnO2 derived from spinel-type lithium manganese dioxide and found that intra-particle diffusion was the kinetic rate-controlling step. Renew and Hansen (2017) used a MnOx sorbent as part of a process train for the extraction of lithium from geothermal brines. Pretreatment for removal of silica and divalent cations was considered critical to prevent coating of the MnOx sorbent, which would prevent lithium sorption. Many variations of MnOx have been synthesized, characterized, and tested for lithium adsorption under a variety of conditions. For example, Liu et al. (2015) synthesized Li1.6Mn1.6O4 and MnO2·0.5H2O. Other formulations include lithium antimony manganese oxides (MnO2·0.10Sb2O5 hydrates) and iron-doped MnOx (Chitrakar et al., 2000; Chitrakar et al., 2014). Li et al. (2018) conducted a review of MnOx sorbents and identified maximum capacities of MnOx as approximately 55 mg/g, but more typically in the range of 20 to 40 mg/g. Sorbed lithium can be recovered with dilute acid solutions; however, in some cases the adsorptive capacity for lithium ions decreased through repeated adsorption/elution cycles (Ooi et al., 1986; Miyai et al., 1988; Liu et al., 2019; Xu et al., 2021). Li et al. (2018) concluded that MnOx ion sieves exhibited a high ion-exchange capacity and high selectivity for lithium ions from various aqueous resources, but that the dissolution of the sorbent during the regeneration process using acid degrades the ion-exchange capacity and results in a poor cycling stability. This key issue limits MnOx potential for upscaling (Li et al., 2018). Industrial application of MnOx (and other inorganic sorbents) frequently focuses on improving the stability of the sorbents and several different approaches to stabilizing sorbents have been proposed. Snydacker (2018) proposed coating MnOx sorbents to improve stability. Coating can be a variety of materials, such as phosphates, metal oxides, including titanium, nickel, and zirconium oxides, or carbon materials, including amorphous carbon. Other suggested coatings include polymers, such as polystyrene and polydivinylbenzene, fluorides, fluoride polymers, and nitrides (Snydacker, 2018). Ryu et al. (2017) successfully combined silica (SiO2) with a lithium MnOx (Li1.33Mn1.67O4) by a high-energy milling technique and calcination to impart improved stability to the spinel MnOx and reduced the level of Mn dissolution during the acid extraction of sorbed lithium. Resins and polymers have been proposed for use to make more robust and stable variants of metal oxide sorbents that can withstand repeated acid-extraction cycles (Chung et al., 2008; Park et al., 2012; Xiao et 4PDF Image | Lithium Extraction from Hybrid Geothermal Power
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ORC Waste Heat Turbine and ORC System Build Plans: All turbine plans are $10,000 each. This allows you to build a system and then consider licensing for production after you have completed and tested a unit.Redox Flow Battery Technology: With the advent of the new USA tax credits for producing and selling batteries ($35/kW) we are focussing on a simple flow battery using shipping containers as the modular electrolyte storage units with tax credits up to $140,000 per system. Our main focus is on the salt battery. This battery can be used for both thermal and electrical storage applications. We call it the Cogeneration Battery or Cogen Battery. One project is converting salt (brine) based water conditioners to simultaneously produce power. In addition, there are many opportunities to extract Lithium from brine (salt lakes, groundwater, and producer water).Salt water or brine are huge sources for lithium. Most of the worlds lithium is acquired from a brine source. It's even in seawater in a low concentration. Brine is also a byproduct of huge powerplants, which can now use that as an electrolyte and a huge flow battery (which allows storage at the source).We welcome any business and equipment inquiries, as well as licensing our turbines for manufacturing.CONTACT TEL: 608-238-6001 Email: greg@infinityturbine.com (Standard Web Page)