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(Swain, 2016; Liu et al., 2019; Xu et al., 2021). Several studies have investigated polymerized crown ethers for lithium extraction (Huang et al., 2018; Li et al., 2019; Xu et al., 2019; Bai et al., 2020; Li et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020). All of these approaches have shown some degree of success for selective extraction of lithium from simple solutions. Although crown ethers and aza crown ethers have been successful in the laboratory, there are significant barriers to commercial application of crown ethers for the extraction of lithium from geothermal brines. Crown ethers are expensive to manufacture and the selectivity of crown ethers for lithium in complex solutions has not been proven (Swain, 2016; Liu et al., 2019; Xu et al., 2021). The level of pretreatment required (i.e., to remove base metals) before crown ether extraction of lithium is not known. There is a consensus that crown ethers are promising, but more research on fundamental and applied properties of crown ethers in the context of geothermal lithium is needed (Swain, 2016; Liu et al., 2019; Xu et al., 2021). 3.4.2 Multicomponent solvent systems Organic solvent processes for metal extraction and purification frequently use a mixture of chemicals that include: 1) an extractant, such as a metal chelating or binding reagent; 2) a co-extractant, such as an adduct-forming synergistic reagent; and 3) a diluent or bulk solvent. Example diluents are kerosene, xylene, and alkanes, such as dodecane (Fleitlikh et al., 2018; Lee et al., 1968; Nguyen and Lee, 2018; Spasic et al., 2020; Zante et al., 2020a). Extractants include neutral species, such as ketones, beta-diketones, or organophosphates and ionizable species, such as carboxylic or phosphoric acids and amines and other ionizable functional groups (Fleitlikh et al., 2018; Liu et al., 2019; Nguyen and Lee, 2018; Nguyen et al., 2020). A variety of organic and inorganic compounds, such (TOPO) or ferric chloride, serve as synergistic adducts. In some cases, extractants such as di-2-ethylhexylphosphoric acid (D2EHPA) are used alone (Nguyen and Lee, 2018; Spasic et al., 2020). More frequently, synergistic mixtures, such as D2EHPA and TOPO, are applied together to enhance selectivity or recovery efficiency (Spasic et al., 2020). Solvent extraction was proposed for the extraction of lithium from aqueous solutions of alkali metal salts as early as 1954 (Fernelius and Vanuitert, 1954). Lee et al. (1968) extracted lithium from a solution of alkali metal salts using an adduct between dibenzoylmethane (DBM) and TOPO. The resulting product had the form LiDBM·2TOPO or Li2(DBM)2·2HDBM·4TOPO, depending on the original solution composition. The chelated lithium was extracted with dodecane or p-xylene (Lee et al., 1968). Other investigators have used a variety of combinations of co-extractants to recover lithium from solution (e.g., Ghorbanzadeh et al., 2018; Granata et al., 2012; Guo et al., 2013; Hano et al., 1992; Yang et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2020a). Individual organophosphorus compounds have also been investigated for the direct extraction of lithium from solution (El-Eswed et al., 2014; Nguyen and Lee, 2018). Neutral extraction systems containing tributyl phosphate (TBP), FeCl3, and kerosene have been extensively investigated (Liu et al., 2019; Nguyen and Lee, 2018; Su et al., 2020a; Su et al., 2020b; Zhou et al., 2020). Generally, the combination of beta-diketone and neutral ligand has an excellent performance for the lithium extraction and separation from other alkali metal ions (Liu et al., 2019; Swain, 2016; Pranolo et al., 2015). However, experience in the lithium battery recycling industry specifically and mining applications generally show that solvent extraction systems favor the complexation of transition metals, such as cobalt and copper, and divalent alkaline earth metals over lithium (e.g, Hano et al., 1992; Xu et al., 2021). It can be concluded that ketone, beta-diketone and organophosphorus solvents have not been shown to be sufficiently selective for lithium to be practical for application to geothermal waters; however, these compounds are useful in pretreatment of lithium brines, particularly for the removal of the divalent cations and interfering or valuable metals (e.g., Boukraa, 2020; Featherstone et al., 2019; Nguyen and Lee, 2018; Torkaman et al., 2017; Virolainen et al., 2016; Xu et al., 2021; Yang et al., 2020). 3.4.3 Alternative diluents: Ionic liquids and supercritical carbon dioxide Ionic liquids and supercritical carbon dioxide have been used as diluents for solvent extraction systems. Ionic liquids are frequently employed as the diluent with ketones, beta-diketones, or organophosphates (Liu et al., 2019; Shi et al., 2014; Shi et al., 2015; Shi et al., 2016, 2017a; Shi et al., 2017b; Shi et al., 2020a; Zante et al., 2020b; Zhou et al., 2020). Supercritical carbon dioxide has been used as a diluent for crown ethers (Pálsdóttir et al., 2020; Palsdottir and Tester, 2019; Ruttinger et al., 2019). Ionic liquids can have properties as an extractant or as co-extractants and ionic liquids have also been investigated for the separation of lithium isotopes (Abbott et al., 2011; Liu et al., 2019; Swain, 2016; Xu et al., 2013). Imidazole ionic liquids were shown to have properties for the direct extraction of lithium ions, even in the absence of a co-extractant or chelating agent (Shi et al., 2017b; Shi et al., 2020a; Wang et al., 2018). However, the selectivity of ionic liquids has not been fully demonstrated. For example, it was shown that tetrabutylammonium 2-ethylhexyl hydrogen-2-ethylhexylphosphonate was effective for the separation of lithium from other alkaline metals, but the ability of this ionic liquid to separate lithium from alkaline earth or other cations was not investigated (Shi et al., 2020a). Although ionic liquids show promise for use in the selective extraction of lithium from geothermal brines, their application may be problematic. (Abbott et al., 2011). Loss of the ionic liquids into the extracted solution is a common problem (Liu et al., 2019; Shi et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2018). Physical properties (such as viscosity) and solubilities with water will limit the choice of ionic liquids that can be used (Abbott et al., 2011). The high cost of these solvents also suggests that ionic liquids are better suited to small volume applications for extraction of high value metals (Abbott et al., 2011). However, the prospect of concentrating metals from large volumes of dilute aqueous solution into small volumes of ionic liquids is promising and interest in lithium extraction using these materials is an active area of research (e.g., Abbott et al., 2011; Liu et al., 2019; Masmoudi et al., 2020; Zhou et al., 2020). 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ORC Waste Heat Turbine and ORC System Build Plans: All turbine plans are $10,000 each. This allows you to build a system and then consider licensing for production after you have completed and tested a unit.Redox Flow Battery Technology: With the advent of the new USA tax credits for producing and selling batteries ($35/kW) we are focussing on a simple flow battery using shipping containers as the modular electrolyte storage units with tax credits up to $140,000 per system. Our main focus is on the salt battery. This battery can be used for both thermal and electrical storage applications. We call it the Cogeneration Battery or Cogen Battery. One project is converting salt (brine) based water conditioners to simultaneously produce power. In addition, there are many opportunities to extract Lithium from brine (salt lakes, groundwater, and producer water).Salt water or brine are huge sources for lithium. Most of the worlds lithium is acquired from a brine source. It's even in seawater in a low concentration. Brine is also a byproduct of huge powerplants, which can now use that as an electrolyte and a huge flow battery (which allows storage at the source).We welcome any business and equipment inquiries, as well as licensing our turbines for manufacturing.| CONTACT TEL: 608-238-6001 Email: greg@infinityturbine.com | RSS | AMP |