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was 0.28 mg/hour·cm2 of active membrane using a three-membrane stack. Increased current increased the extraction rate, but had a negative effect on membrane lifetime (Mroczek et al., 2015). Li et al. (2019b) reviewed selective electrodialysis in the context of lithium extraction from water. They noted that the extraction of lithium ion from salt lake brines can be achieved by electrodialysis using commercially available anion-exchange membranes and lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4)/iron(III) phosphate (FePO4) electrodes. Parameters such as pH and salt content influenced lithium extraction and that lithium adsorption as high as 38.9 mg/g could be achieved (Li et al., 2019b). The applied voltage, feed velocity, feed lithium to magnesium ratio and pH significantly influenced the lithium to magnesium separation factor (Li et al., 2019b). It was concluded that selective electrodialysis was superior to nanofiltration for the fractionation of lithium to magnesium in solutions with a high initial mass ratio (Li et al., 2019b). However, it was suggested that the poor durability of ionic membranes is a major issue preventing electrodialysis becoming a practical technology for the recovery of lithium from brines (Li et al., 2019b). 4. PRETREATMENT BEFORE DIRECT LITHIUM EXTRACTION For all direct lithium extraction technologies, the presence of interfering substances will require that the technology for lithium extraction le stages. For inorganic ion sieve ion- exchange sorbents, the selectivity of the sorbent, the tolerance of the sorbent for interfering ions, and the purity of the lithium extracted from the sorbent will be major cost drivers for real-world applications (Kay, 2020). How the direct lithium extraction technology performs in the presence of any number of co-occurring chemical elements, including magnesium, calcium, manganese, and heavy metals, will determine the level of pretreatment required before the lithium extraction step. The level of pretreatment needed for a geothermal brine will also depend on available options for post-extraction purification and the purity requirements, which vary by application and buyer, for the lithium chloride, lithium carbonate, or lithium hydroxide product. Geothermal fluids are complex solutions (Table 1) and even the most selective molecular sieves adsorb undesirable minerals from lithium leachates or brines (Jiang et al., 2020; Mceachern et al., 2020; Perez et al., 2014; Xu et al., 2021). The initial brine composition determines the production process, which typically includes: 1) one or more pretreatment steps, to prepare the brine for lithium extraction; 2) the lithium extraction and recovery process, to concentrate the lithium from the brine, typically as a lithium chloride; and 3) post-extraction processing, to remove impurities from the recovered lithium and convert lithium chloride to other products (e.g., Munk et al., 2016; Perez et al., 2014). For geothermal brines, typical materials that must be removed or reduced in concentration before lithium extraction include silica, magnesium, calcium and other metals (Mceachern et al., 2020). Major elements and compounds found in geothermal brines that can interfere in lithium extraction include other alkali metals (Na, K), alkaline earth metals (Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba), so-called heavy metals (Mn, Fe, Zn, Pb), and metalloids (B, Si, As) (Abe and Chitrakar, 1987). In Salton Sea brines, lithium is the not the most abundant element (Table 1), and many other more abundant elements may need to be removed or controlled before lithium can be adsorbed using currently available technology. 4.1 Alkali Metals Alkali metals other than lithium often occur in brines at concentrations many time greater than lithium concentrations (Table 1) and even though most inorganic metal oxide sorbents are preferentially selective for lithium over sodium or potassium, due to the much higher concentrations of sodium and potassium than lithium in typical brines, it is still possible for these elements to reduce the efficiency of lithium sorption (Chitrakar et al., 2014a; Shi et al., 2011; Snydacker et al., 2018; Xiao et al., 2012). For maximum economic value, the final lithium product, such as lithium carbonate, lithium chloride, or lithium hydroxide, must be essentially free of sodium and potassium (Perez et al., 2014). The separation of lithium from sodium and potassium can be accomplished using solvents, precipitation, selective filtration and other methods that are typically applied after other pretreatment steps (e.g., Chitrakar et al., 2014a; Harrison and Burba, 2017a; Meshram et al., 2014; Nishihama et al., 2011; Samco, 2018). Potassium is also removed and recovered as potentially valuable potash (Harrison, 2014; Harrison et al., 2014; Samco, 2018). 4.2 Alkaline Earth Metals Pretreatment for the removal of alkaline earth metals, particularly calcium and magnesium, is an important anticipated cost for commercial deployment of molecular sieve sorbents (EnergySource Minerals, 2020; Key, 2020; Mceachern et al., 2020; Samco, 2018). Separation of lithium from magnesium is critical to achieving high recovery efficiency and purity of the final lithium product (Jiang et al., 2020; Mceachern et al., 2020; Perez et al., 2014; Xu et al., 2021). Calcium and magnesium may be removed from brine by a variety of methods and magnesium has a significant resource value if it can be recovered as magnesium oxide. Xu et al. (2021) reviewed methods for separating magnesium and lithium in the context of recovering lithium from salt lake brines. Techniques for the separation of magnesium from lithium include precipitation, adsorption, solvent extraction, nanofiltration membrane, electrodialysis, and electrochemical methods (Xu et al., 2021). Ion-exchange resins are often applied for the separation of alkaline earth metals from alkaline metals (Lee and Bauman, 1980b; Shi et al., 2020b). Nishihama et al. (2011) purified the recovered lithium with a strongly acidic cation-exchange resin to remove divalent metal ions; then removed sodium and potassium with a diketone/TOPO- impregnated resin; and lastly the recovery of lithium as precipitates of Li2CO3 using (NH4)2CO3 saturated solution. The yield of recovered Li2CO3 with this process was 56% with more than 99.9% purity (Nishihama et al., 2011). Bukowsky et al. (1991) demonstrated that precipitation followed by ion-exchange can be effectively used for separation and recovery of lithium from a synthetic solution of calcium and magnesium chlorides. Laitala et al. (2017) proposed using precipitation with sodium carbonate or calcium hydroxide for bulk precipitation of magnesium and calcium, followed by liquid-liquid extraction with organophosphates to remove residual calcium and magnesium. Perez et al. (2014) used two-stage precipitation of magnesium with calcium hydroxide to recover virtually all magnesium precipitated in the form of magnesium hydroxide, but also significant quantities of calcium in the form of gypsum (CaSO4·2H2O) and 9 Stringfellow and DobsonPDF Image | Lithium Extraction from Hybrid Geothermal Power
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ORC Waste Heat Turbine and ORC System Build Plans: All turbine plans are $10,000 each. This allows you to build a system and then consider licensing for production after you have completed and tested a unit.Redox Flow Battery Technology: With the advent of the new USA tax credits for producing and selling batteries ($35/kW) we are focussing on a simple flow battery using shipping containers as the modular electrolyte storage units with tax credits up to $140,000 per system. Our main focus is on the salt battery. This battery can be used for both thermal and electrical storage applications. We call it the Cogeneration Battery or Cogen Battery. One project is converting salt (brine) based water conditioners to simultaneously produce power. In addition, there are many opportunities to extract Lithium from brine (salt lakes, groundwater, and producer water).Salt water or brine are huge sources for lithium. Most of the worlds lithium is acquired from a brine source. It's even in seawater in a low concentration. Brine is also a byproduct of huge powerplants, which can now use that as an electrolyte and a huge flow battery (which allows storage at the source).We welcome any business and equipment inquiries, as well as licensing our turbines for manufacturing.| CONTACT TEL: 608-238-6001 Email: greg@infinityturbine.com | RSS | AMP |