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Membranes 2022, 12, 373 exclusion mechanisms: steric exclusion mechanism and charge based exclusion mecha- nisms [78]. The steric exclusion mechanism is the geometric exclusion of solute particles larger than the membrane pore size. As the pore size of an NF membrane is typically be- tween 1 nm and 10 nm, particles/molecules with big size and high molecular weight, therefore, can be excluded from desired solutions. However, NF membranes usua1l0lyofh29ave a slightly charged surface, and the dimensions of pores are close to the dimensions of ions. Therefore, the interactions between solutes and membrane cannot be governed by the ste- ric hindrance alone but also relies on non-sieving rejection mechanisms [79], i.e., the ions. Therefore, the interactions between solutes and membrane cannot be governed by charge-based exclusion mechanisms. the steric hindrance alone but also relies on non-sieving rejection mechanisms [79], i.e., the The charge-based exclusion mechanisms include dielectric exclusion (DE) [79] and charge-based exclusion mechanisms. DonnTahne ecxhcalrugseio-bna[s8e0d].eTxhcleuDsionnmanecehxacnluismiosniinscdludeetodtiheleechtraicrgeexdclnuastiuonre(oDfEth) e[7N9]Famndem- Dbroannea,nasewxcellulsaisotnhe[8i0n]t.erTahcetioDnosnonfacno-eioxnclsuwsiiotnh fiisxdeduelteocttrhicecharrgesd. Onwatiunrge tofttheecNhaFrge monemthberNanFem,aesmwberlalnase,thaenianttueralcrtieopnuslosifocno-oifosnismwiliathrlyfixcehdareglecdtriiocncshwariglleos.ccOuwriantgthtoemthem- cbhranrgeesounrftahce.NCFomepmarbartaivnel,ya,inoantusrwalitrhepouplpsiosninogfcshimarilgaerslywcihllabrgeeadttiroancstewdiltlootchceurmaetm- the membrane surface. Comparatively, ions with opposing charges will be attracted to the brane surface and be drawn through the membrane pores. Hence, when placed in a salt membrane surface and be drawn through the membrane pores. Hence, when placed in a solution, a potential difference at the interphase is generated to counteract the transport salt solution, a potential difference at the interphase is generated to counteract the transport of co-ions to the membrane as well as counter-ions to the bulk solution [81]. In this way, of co-ions to the membrane as well as counter-ions to the bulk solution [81]. In this way, the co-ions are repelled from the membrane, and counter-ions are also rejected due to the co-ions are repelled from the membrane, and counter-ions are also rejected due to electroneutrality requirements; thus, salt as a whole is rejected. The dielectric exclusion electroneutrality requirements; thus, salt as a whole is rejected. The dielectric exclusion (DE) results from interactions between ions and polarised interfaces of media with differ- (DE) results from interactions between ions and polarised interfaces of media with different ent dielectric constants [81]. The primary effect is caused by the difference between the dielectric constants [81]. The primary effect is caused by the difference between the two two dielectric constants of the aqueous phase and the polymeric matrix. Hence, when an dielectric constants of the aqueous phase and the polymeric matrix. Hence, when an ion ion is situated in the media with a higher dielectric constant (e.g., water), it induces electric is situated in the media with a higher dielectric constant (e.g., water), it induces electric charges with the same sign as itself at the interface between the media with a lower die- charges with the same sign as itself at the interface between the media with a lower lectric constant (e.g., membrane) [81]. Thus, the exclusion of ions from membrane pores dielectric constant (e.g., membrane) [81]. Thus, the exclusion of ions from membrane pores occurs. The diagram presented in Figure 7 schematically explains each of the exclusion occurs. The diagram presented in Figure 7 schematically explains each of the exclusion mechanisms [75]. mechanisms [75]. Figure 7. Schematic representation of solute exclusion mechanisms in nanofiltration [75]. Figure 7. Schematic representation of solute exclusion mechanisms in nanofiltration [75]. In recent years, NF has been extensively reported as an efficient approach to a range of industry challenges, including wastewater reclamation, dyes rejection, and the separation of monovalent ions from co-existing multivalent ions. In particular, NF membranes are found to be highly effective in terms of the recovery of lithium from lithium-containing aqueous solutions, such as brine or seawater. Somrani et al. investigated the separation of lithium from salty Tunisian lake brines using the NF membranes and low-pressure reverse osmosis (LPRO) membranes [82]. NF membranes appeared to be more successful in extracting Li+ from a diluted brine due to its higher hydraulic permeability to pure water, low critical pressure of zero Pa and higher monovalent ion selectivity that can be achieved at low working pressures (less than 15 bar). It was also found that NF membranes were preferable to LPRO membranes in terms of lithium-magnesium separation. Bi et al. also studied the recovery of lithium from high Mg2+/Li+ ratio brine by nanofiltration [77]. In their study, NF proved to be an efficient approach to recover Li+ and reduce the Mg2+/Li+ ratio from brines with a high Mg2+/Li+ ratio. They also proved that the mass transportPDF Image | Lithium Harvesting using Membranes
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