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Materials 2019, 12, 350 4 of 22 2.1.3. Carbon Sources Clostridium spp. bacteria are known to have the ability to utilize simple as well as complex sugars, including pentoses and hexoses [84–87]. To degrade polysaccharides into simple monosaccharides (glucose, xylose and arabinose), clostridia secrete large quantities of extracellular enzymes, including amylase, saccharase, glucosidase, glucoamylase, pullulanase and amylopullulanase. These enzymes enable the production of butanol from other carbon substrates, such as corn, sugar beets, sugar cane, potatoes, tapioca or millet [88,89]. Due to their strong amylase activities, Clostridium spp. bacteria are particularly effective at utilizing starchy materials, without requiring their initial hydrolysis. Molasses (cane and soy), whey permeate, cassava and Jerusalem artichokes may also be used as carbon sources for butanol production [89]. Although sucrose and starch are good substrates for butanol fermentation, they are not commonly used because of their high price. Moreover, the use of these crops for butanol synthesis may be controversial, due to competition with demand for food [84]. Several stages are required for the production of biobutanol from polymeric saccharides. In upstream processing, prior to butanol fermentation, renewable biomass consisting of starch or lignocellulosics materials is pretreated. The pretreatment method depends on the type of biomass used [87–89]. In one study, around 8 g/L of butanol was produced from soy molasses with the use of the C. beijerinckii strain, with a yield of 0.1 g/g of substrate [90]. In another study, which used starch-based packing peanuts for continuous production of butanol, 18.9 g/L of butanol were produced from 80.0 g/L of the substrate within 110 h [91]. According to Madihah [92], as much as 16.0 g/L of butanol can be obtained from gelatinized sago starch, with a yield of 0.24 g/g of glucose. Batch fermentation of cassava starch and cassava chip hydrolysate is reported to have resulted in 16.4–16.9 g/L of butanol, with a yield of 0.26–0.35 g/g of substrate [93]. Liu et al. [94] report that 8.8 g/L of butanol can be produced within 72 h of fermentation using wheat bran hydrolysate containing around 53 g/L of reducing sugars, including glucose, xylose and arabinose. Qureshi et al. [95] used wheat straw hydrolysate as a substrate for butanol production with C. beijerinckii and obtained 12.0 g/L of butanol as the final result of bacterial fermentation. Recently, fermentation of rice brans using C. saccharoperbutylacetonicum has also been found to produce satisfactory results, with 7.7 g/L of butanol produced at a yield of 0.27 g/g of total sugar [96]. In another study, butanol was produced from pretreated deoiled rice bran with a maximum yield 6.48 g/L [97]. C. acetobutylicum cells have been found to be capable of growing in a suspension of 10% (w/v) extruded fresh domestic waste (DOW), producing 3 g/L butanol [98]. The fermentation yield can be raised to 4.2 g/L by adding cellulases and β-glucosidases. Fresh and dried domestic waste can be treated by extrusion, following which the total sugar content is usually between 28% and 39.3% (w/w), with glucose constituting 18.4–25.1% of the fresh and dried waste, respectively. Claassen et al. [99] described using steam explosion and enzymatic hydrolysis of domestic waste. Algal biomass is another source of raw material for butanol fermentation. One advantage of autotrophic macro-algae is that they consume environmental carbon dioxide in order to grow, thereby helping to reduce global warming. Polysaccharides in algal cell walls account for a large proportion of the total carbon content. Several algal species contain large quantities of carbohydrates, and can provide a good substrate for butanol fermentation. For example, the C. pasteurianum strain has been reported to produce approximately 14.0–16.0 g/L of mixed solvent, including butanol, from the halophilic microalgae Dunaliella with a mixture of 40 g/L of glycerol [84]. Recently, pretreated algal biomass from Nannochloropsis sp., Arthrospira platensis and wastewater algae has been used as a substrate for butanol synthesis [100,101].PDF Image | Butanol Synthesis Routes for Biofuel Production
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