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Materials 2019, 12, 350 5 of 22 It has been suggested that the best strategy for the economical production of butanol is to use sugars extracted from treated cellulosic biomass as fermentation substrates [102,103]. Agricultural, industrial, forest and wood waste residues are composed of cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin [104]. However, obtaining fermentable sugars from these lignocellulosic materials requires physical, chemical and biological pretreatment, separately or in combination [105]. Nevertheless, agricultural residues seem to be the most promising lignocellulosic substrates for butanol synthesis [95,106,107]. Large amounts of this material, such as rejected whole fruits and vegetables, grains, stalks, cobs and husks, are produced during harvesting and processing, which creates environmental pollution as well as economic costs. Food products, especially fruits, vegetables and grains, are wasted during all stages of the production process, due to their delicate nature and short shelf-lives, after which they are deemed unsuitable for human consumption. The lack of coordination among food producers and distributors increases food wastage. According to recent studies, farmers lose between 30% and 40% of the value of their fruit and vegetables before their produce reaches the final consumer [108–110]. Rejected fruit and vegetables are mostly used as animal feed or for composting. Voget et al. [111] report the possibility of using apple pomace as a substrate for butanol fermentation. Survase et al. [112] have proposed the use of market-rejected and imperfect vegetables (tomatoes, carrots and cabbage) as supplements for improved butanol production. Supplementation with 5% (w/v) carrot, cabbage or tomatoes increased the maximum values for total solvent production to 9.96 g/L, 10.49 g/L and 10.65 g/L, respectively, as compared to the control value at 7.43 g/L. In light of the literature concerning butanol production from different kinds of biomass, research efforts should now focus on the use of various forms of waste biomass, as well as on identifying the most efficient bacterial strains for industrial processes. The discussed examples of ABE fermentation using clostridia and carbon sources are presented in Table 2. Table 2. Productivity of butanol by clostridia using different carbon sources. Strain C. beijerinckii C. beijerinckii BA101 C. acetobutylicum C. saccharoperbutylacetonicum N1-4 C.beijerinckii ATCC 55025 C. beijerinckii C. saccharoperbutylacetonicum C. acetobutylicum YM1 C. acetobutylicum C. pasteurianum C. acetobutylicum DSM 792 2.1.4. Improvement Strategies Carbon Source Soy molasses Starch-based packing peanuts, Gelatinized sago starch Cassava starch and cassava chip hydrolysate Wheat bran hydrolysate Wheat straw hydrolysate Rice brans Pretreated deoiled rice bran Fresh domestic wastes Microalgae Dunaliella sp. and glycerol Wasted vegetables Productivity (g/L) Reference 8 [90] 18.9 [91] 16 [92] 16.9 [93] 8.8 [94] 12 [95] 7.7 [96] 6.48 [97] 3 [98] 14.0–16.0 [84] 9.96–10.65 [112] In conventional clostridial fermentation processes, butanol yields of 16–17 g/L can be achieved using the best native bacteria. Therefore, one of the main goals of research has been the development of strains to enhance the butanol yield (Figure 1). Research has focused on: (i) the selection of the bacterial strain, (ii) use of less expensive carbon sources to produce butanol, (iii) metabolic engineering strategies, (iv) the process development and (v) biobutanol recovery techniques.PDF Image | Butanol Synthesis Routes for Biofuel Production
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