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Molecules 2020, 25, 1712 2 of 44 1.1. Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Technologies Fuel cells and elecrolysers are energy conversion systems that electrochemically convert energy from chemical (stored in a fuel) to electric and vice versa without any intermediated combustion process. This offers superior efficiency and performance compared to the incumbent combustion-based energy generation technologies [2–5]. Fuel cells are eco-friendly devices with potential zero emission at the point of use. Moreover, if the so-called energy vectors, used in fuel cells, were generated by thermochemical processes from biomass or from electrochemical processes utilising renewable electric energy sources, the resulting carbon dioxide cycle would be null. So, they are considered to be the energy conversion devices of the future. In addition, they are a silent technology, without noise or vibration, and their design flexibility allows for simple construction and a diverse range of applications including portable, stationary, and transportation. In general, electrochemical devices, including fuel cells and electrolysers, consist of two electrodes—anode and cathode—separated by an electrolyte with the purpose to allow the passage of ions generated during the redox half reactions. At the anode side, the oxidation reaction takes place while the reduction reaction occurs at the cathode side. The electrolyte conducts the produced/required ions to complete the reactions at the electrodes and serves as a separator between the anode and cathode reactants in the fuel cell and electrolyser technologies. This study will focus on Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) technologies, namely, Hydrogen Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells (H2 PEMFCs), Direct Methanol Fuel Cells (DMFCs) and Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Water Electrolysers (PEMWEs). PEM technologies fall under the low temperature fuel cells category with operating temperatures up to 90 ◦C. Protons (hydrogen ions) are the transported ion through the PEM structure. Below, the thermodynamic, state of art and technical challenges of the three technologies are briefly described. 1.1.1. H2 PEMFC PEMFCs utilize hydrogen as a fuel and exploit the electrochemical reaction of hydrogen and oxygen to produce electrical energy. Protons pass through the membrane reaching the cathode while electrons are forced to flow through an external circuit. Protons, electrons, and oxygen react at the cathode producing water. Reactions involved in the chemical process are described below: Attheanode: H2 →2H++2e− (1) Atthecathode: 12O2+2H++2e−→H2O (2) Overall reaction : H2 + 12O2 → H2O (3) PEMFC advantages include high efficiency, fast response to load, high power density and low operating temperature [6,7]. However, PEMFCs are expensive due to the use of expensive catalyst materials, have durability issues and are challenging for mass production [8–10]. PEMFCs applications focus on transportation, distributed/stationary and portable power generation: Toyota, Honda, and Hyundai have already introduced their fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV) to the market. The durability of the polymer membrane is a crucial factor affecting the lifetime of the stack. Industry requirements for automotive fuel cell stacks durability is 5000 h with a performance drop of no more than 10% [11]. Nafion is the only membrane reported to achieve this requirement. Also, at elevated temperatures (> 90 ◦C) the durability is further reduced due to the dehydration of the membrane and the subsequent drop in proton conductivity. However, operation at higher temperatures is desirable as it allows for quicker reaction kinetics and simpler water and heat management [12]. This means a smaller fuel cell system can be employed in vehicles to provide the same power output.PDF Image | Composite Polymers for Electrolyte Membrane Technologies
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