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Molecules 2021, 26, 2144 4 of 37 The catalytic activity of anodic materials also strongly depends on the size of the particles and the morphology of the obtained surface, which is correlated to the number of active centers where the reaction takes place [32,34,35]. Because of the high surface- to-volume ratio, smaller particles provide a greater quantity of reaction centers without affecting the macroscopic dimensions of the electrode and also improve the use ratio of noble metals [12]. For this reason, electrodes built from immobilized nanocompounds have recently attracted extensive attention from researchers. The support materials on which nanocompounds are also immobilized strongly affect their reactivity by changing their properties, like electroactive area or electron transfer, and in consequence, the overall performance of the final electrode material [34,36–38]. Highly porous support materials provide better conditions for reagents diffusion, ensure higher dispersion of catalyst and prevent agglomeration of embedded nanoparticles [34]. Enhanced nanoparticle dispersion leads to a higher electroactive area of the system because of a higher amount of active reaction centers available for the reagents [34,36]. The high electrical conductivity of the support material enhances the electron transfer through the electrode, which enhances the reaction kinetics and prevent nanoparticles oxidation [34]. Desired properties of the support material are good electrical conductivity, a large surface area, and high corrosion resistance, strongly interact with the catalyst material and facilitate simple catalyst regeneration [34]. The support materials can also interact with the catalyst nanoparticles leading to a synergetic effect that takes place when the effect of using two different catalyst materials together is higher than the sum of their usage as monometallic materials [37,39–41], and electronic effect, which happens in multimetallic systems because of different electroneg- ativity of their components [17–21,37]. As a result of such interaction, catalyst activity differs because the changed electronic structure of the active sites changes the strength of the reagents adsorption, which strongly influences the reaction kinetics [17–21,42]. The support materials for nanoparticle immobilization can be divided into two main groups: carbon and noncarbon materials. Over decades, carbon materials have been used as electrode materials in low-temperature fuel cells because of their extraordinary physical properties, such as high surface area, low weight, chemical inertia and good conductivity, but the main disadvantage of carbon materials is their sensitivity to corrosion caused by electrochemical oxidation [12,38]. Noncarbon templates, such as mesoporous silica [43], metal oxides [34,44], nitrides [20,38] and phosphides [45,46], show better corrosion resis- tance and high melting points but are characterized by lower electrical conductivity. In addition, this group of support materials has a wide range of other advantages that carbon materials do not have. For example, titanium-based support materials lead to higher CO tolerance than carbon support catalysts, but they are not used as often as carbon materials because their high molecular weight lowers the mass activity of the catalyst [37,38]. Noncarbon templates are being used when their advantages are more significant than the disadvantages of their presence [37,38,47,48]. A good example of this kind of material is titanium meshes, which show good conductivity and are electrochemically stable and, therefore, can be good support for a wide range of electrocatalysts. Mesh-based anodes consist of only one layer, which allows the electrode to be thin. Additionally, electrodes based on meshes do not need to contain Teflon because they are more hydrophilic than conventional electrodes [49]. Due to their low-cost, stable physical properties, large surface areas and good con- ductivity, carbon materials, such as reduced graphene oxide (rGO) [13,50,51], graphene nanosheets (GNS) [13], carbon nanotubes (CNTs) [13,50], multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) [13,52–54], functionalized mesoporous carbon [13], exfoliated graphite (EG) [55,56], pyrolytic graphite [54] and glassy carbon (GC) [57–59] are widely used as catalyst support materials for the electrooxidation of low molecular weight organic compounds, such as methanol, ethanol and propanol.PDF Image | Effect of Anode Material on Electrochemical Oxidation of Alcohols
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