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List of Figures Figure 1-1. Illustration of the progression of the studies in this thesis from broad global-scale energy systems to a focus on electrochemical cells, electrodes and electrode materials. ....................... 4 Figure 1-2. A solid oxide cell operated as an electrolysis cell and as a fuel cell. .................................... 6 Figure 1-3. Illustration of a typical polarization curve for a solid oxide cell at 850 °C in 50% H2 + 50% H2O with important thermodynamic potentials labeled.................................................................... 9 Figure 1-4. Simulated impedance spectrum for charge transfer at an ideal electrode.........................12 Figure 1-5. Examples of impedance spectra and corresponding equivalent circuits........................... 12 Figure 2-1. Diagram of energy flows for each energy carrier, starting from energy sources, with metrics of sustainability and practicality at each stage ............................................................................... 20 Figure 2-2. Tradeoffs that impede the sustainability of the large-scale use of land-based biomass as an energy source. ............................................................................................................................................. 23 Figure 2-3. Diagrams of sustainable energy carrier scenarios in which both liquid hydrocarbon fuels and electricity are used to power PHEVs....................................................................................................34 Figure 2-4. Proposed long-term sustainable energy timeline for transportation in which electric propulsion and sustainable hydrocarbons scale up to meet total transportation energy ..................... 34 Figure 3-1. CO2-recycled synthetic fuel cycles. a) once-through re-use of CO2, resulting in net CO2 emissions of approximately 1⁄2 versus the emissions that would occur without any re-use (both from the industrial plant and from transportation), b) continuous closed-loop carbon recycling via air capture of CO2, resulting in near zero net emissions ................................................................................ 44 Figure 3-2. Comparison of carbon-neutral fuel cycles for hydrocarbons produced using (a) renewable/nuclear energy (shown as solar and wind energy), (b) biomass, (c) fossil fuel. (d) Hydrogen produced by solar/wind energy is also shown for comparison with (a)..............................45 Figure 3-3. Map of the possible pathways from H2O and CO2 to hydrocarbon fuels ....................... 47 Figure 3-4. Thermodynamics of CO2 and H2O reduction reactions and water-gas shift ................. 53 Figure 3-5. Typical ranges of polarization curves for different types of state-of-the-art water electrolysis cells................................................................................................................................................59 Figure 3-6. Schematic of the proposed CO2-recycled synthetic fuel production process.................. 75 Figure 3-7. Estimate of synthetic fuel cost vs electricity price ............................................................... 78 Figure 4-1. Diagram of a solid oxide cell applied for co-electrolysis of CO2 and H2O, as part of the renewable fuel cycle ........................................................................................................................................ 95 ivPDF Image | Electrolysis of CO2 and H2O
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