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Chapter 2. Replacing Petroleum with Sustainable Energy Carriers 19 uncertainties. While some parts of the analysis are based on United States data, the arguments presented apply to energy carriers in the global context. In defining sustainability it must be acknowledged that no technology or process can be sustained indefinitely; sustainability is linked to a specific scale of operation and a specific time frame [8, 9]. Wind energy at very large scales is not sustainable [10], nor are fossil fuels at very long time scales. As a result, "sustainable" and "renewable" are not synonymous, and technologies that cleanly harness the vast resources of fossil fuels to satisfy a very large demand can be considered sustainable during a useful time frame of a century or more, even though they cannot satisfy such a demand indefinitely. Energy present in the energy source is converted into other forms, possibly multiple times before it is eventually applied to its final goal. The systems, chemicals and electromagnetic states that carry the energy after it has been extracted from the resource and before it has been used up in the final application we loosely refer to as energy carriers. Electricity can carry energy from one location to another, and thus it (or the electric grid) can be considered an energy carrier. However, in the context of transportation there is not only a spatial transfer but also a temporal transfer. Energy will have to be put on board a vehicle long before it is applied to locomotion or other needs within a vehicle. As a result, energy in the transportation sector is rarely carried as electricity, but it will take the form of electrochemical energy in batteries, electrostatic energy in ultracapacitors, kinetic energy in flywheels, or compression energy in compressed air tanks. Alternatively the energy could be stored in chemical form as in liquid hydrocarbon fuels, hydrogen, ammonia or other forms. The main focus of this study is on various energy carriers for private automobiles. Busses, ships and airplanes have unique criteria for suitable energy carriers and propulsion systems, which we also briefly consider. Different energy systems will lead to different optimizations in the design of a vehicle. For example the high power density available in flywheels makes saving weight on the car far less important than it is for a heavy battery, which is ultimately limited in the rate it can deliver power to the drive train. On the other hand, it is difficult to make a comparison between different technologies, if all else has to be optimized to fit to the particular options. This study therefore assumes that all components outside of the drive train are similar to each other and comparable to today’s average vehicles. Specifically, it is assumed that all cars use similar structural materials and do not take advantage of special lightweight materials to improve overall efficiency. Of course, all technologies are likely to take advantage of such advances as they become affordable. The pathways from energy source to carrier and its use in vehicle propulsion are shown in Figure 2-1 along with the constraints that may impede the sustainability or practicality of a pathway. In the following sections each energy source and energy carrier is discussed in terms of these constraints.PDF Image | Electrolysis of CO2 and H2O
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