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Chapter 2. Replacing Petroleum with Sustainable Energy Carriers 23 crop and soil erosion can damage ecosystems [27]. These effects can be minimized by using diverse biomass feedstocks in advanced conversion processes [34, 35]. Careless use of biomass for energy will therefore shift pollution from the atmosphere (in the case of fossil fuels) to the hydrosphere and the biosphere. The vertical axis in Figure 2-2 illustrates this tradeoff between yield and environmental impact. The midpoint would correspond to low-yield, low-impact biomass, such as switchgrass and high-diversity grassland that can be grown on less fertile soil and using less fertilizer [27, 34]. Economics, however, would likely drive farmers toward higher yields at the expense of increased environmental impact. Displace food Economically driven (use of fertile land, fertilizer, pesticides) Displace carbon sink Sustainable (marginal land, no fertilizers or pesticides) High yield per land area Low environmental impact Figure 2-2. Tradeoffs that impede the sustainability of the large-scale use of land-based biomass as an energy source. Today, crops grown for fuel compete with food crops for land or even directly displace food, thereby affecting the availability and price of food [29, 36-38]. Instead, it would be desirable to grow biomass on land not currently being used for crops. However, roughly two- thirds of earth’s total land area is already covered by biomass and the rest is classified as urban and wasteland (marginal land) [39]. Recklessly displacing carbon sinks such as forests with energy crops can cause a large increase in GHG emissions [38, 40-43] in addition to potential adverse effects on biodiversity. In such a case, even fossil fuels without CCS may be preferred from a climate change perspective. For example, displacing carbon-rich dense tropical forest with relatively sparse grassland for bioenergy should be avoided since it reduces the carbon stock of the area, creating a carbon debt. Therefore, the most fertile high-yielding lands should be avoided. Instead, grassland for bioenergy could displace existing grassland. In this case, the carbon stock in the above-ground part of the plant will still be less than it was, on average, since the crop will be on an agricultural growth-harvest cycle and not continually present on the land. Then, the only way energy crops can be made carbon-neutral is by first sequestering, rather than releasing, much or all of the above-ground carbon in the biomass that is about to be displaced, followed by practicing sustainable agriculture that does not deplete soil organic carbon. The agricultural method (and resulting soil carbon balance) is an important variable in determining the carbon debt resulting from land use change [44]. If advanced biomass energy tends towards converting the entire above-ground part of the plant to fuel to improve yields, this part of the plant will not contribute to soil carbon as it does in sustainable agriculture. Finally, planting onPDF Image | Electrolysis of CO2 and H2O
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