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Chapter 2. Replacing Petroleum with Sustainable Energy Carriers 27 Accounting for this factor-of-4 higher propulsion efficiency, available batteries are still 5 to 8 times the weight or volume of gasoline in terms of energy useable for propulsion. Liquid hydrocarbons are clearly extremely compact, convenient fuels. This partly stems from the fact that their combustion gets nearly 80% by weight of the reactants from air (as O2). Future battery chemistries may offer higher energy densities; the theoretical energy density of the Li/O2 electrochemical couple approaches that of liquid hydrocarbons. Ultracapacitors are either electrochemical double layer capacitors that have extremely high capacitance or conventional capacitors with enhanced dielectrics [65]. The energy density of available ultracapacitors is up to 5 Wh/kg—an order of magnitude less than batteries [54]. Much higher energy densities have been claimed [65] but not demonstrated. At present, ultracapacitors are not suitable to solely power a vehicle. However, they offer some advantages over batteries: they can provide higher power output, higher efficiency and longer lifetimes. Therefore, ultracapacitors may complement batteries in electric vehicles, potentially extending the lifetime of batteries by handling damaging power bursts [66, 67]. Flywheel vehicles are at younger stages of development. Flywheels seem to have lower energy densities than batteries, and must ensure safety and deal with gyroscopic effects during vehicle manuevers. The electricity-based energy carriers have several unique advantages over the others. They typically have a higher efficiency in using the stored energy for vehicle propulsion than hydrogen and hydrocarbons; whereas 15-20% of the energy in gasoline is typically converted to motion, and around 50% for a hydrogen fuel cell powering a 90%-efficient electric motor, a battery and ultracapacitor can have as high as 90 to 95% charge-discharge efficiency, respectively, powering a 90%-efficient electric motor. This high efficiency gives these energy carriers a higher net energy balance and lower life-cycle GHG emissions than the other energy carriers. They can also store regenerative energy, e.g. from the electric motor decelerating while braking the vehicle. As the vehicle gets older, its sustainability would improve as the sustainability of the electricity grid improves. Unlike hydrogen, distributing electricity to a vehicle does not need a complete infrastructure overhaul. To fully replace the approximately 14 million barrels per day (~0.85 TW) of petroleum fuel used in the transportation sector with electric vehicles would require expanding the present electricity generation capacity by about 20- 25% [26]. The current electric grid would be expanded as electric vehicles are adopted, and the current idle night-time capacity can handle a significant amount of demand [68, 69], as we discuss further in section 2.5 below. Long-range driving would need roadside recharging. Concerns that high-voltage charging stations are much slower than refilling a gasoline tank may not be so important because vehicles do not need to be fully refueled at a charging station. Cheaper refueling at home during off-peak hours will always be available—they only need to be refueled enough to get home. Charging also replenishes battery capacity nonlinearly, with aPDF Image | Electrolysis of CO2 and H2O
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