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Chapter 2. Replacing Petroleum with Sustainable Energy Carriers 28 faster rate initially; a 50% recharge takes much less than half the time of a full charge [70], further reducing charging time at a station. Electricity based energy carriers also create an opportunity for cooperation between the transportation and electricity sectors. The energy carriers could double as power storage and return electricity to the gridi. Vehicles could be integrated into the electricity grid and provide load balancing by taking advantage of ―vehicle-to-grid‖ (V2G) transmission, wherein power is pulled from the batteries of vehicles attached to the infrastructure to assist in meeting peak loads and given back to the batteries during the off-peak periods [71]. Similarly, V2G could also improve stability and reliability with intermittent sources like wind power, and provide uninterruptible emergency power to the home during grid outages [71]. Although implementation of V2G depends on a widespread electric vehicle charging/discharging infrastructure and a broad roll out of advanced ―smart‖ grid technologies, it has been estimated to provide more value for the electric utility than the cost of implementation [72]. Used vehicle batteries can also be integrated into the grid as inexpensive power storage for intermittent sources. The end of life of a vehicle battery is usually defined as when 80% of its capacity remains. However, the battery still has useful life remaining, which can be used in stationary storage where the reduced energy density is not as important. There appear to be no overwhelming problems in implementation [73, 74], and utility companies have expressed interest in buying used vehicle batteries [75]. Arrangements in which the vehicle owner leases the batteries could also reduce the consumer’s upfront costs, which would work with both the V2G and spent batteries scenarios. Altogether, there appears to be opportunity for economic cooperation between the cost of the vehicle and the cost of electricity grid management. The major obstacles to the practicality of these energy carriers are their low energy densities and high costs. Low energy density limits the range the vehicle can be driven between recharges. Because of the low energy density, heavy trucks and aircraft are unlikely to be powered by batteries alone [76] and many electric vehicles are constructed of ultra-lightweight materials to reduce the needed battery size [64, 77]. Batteries powering a standard-weight compact sedan with a full 200 to 300 mile electric range can make up more than half the total vehicle weight. Even in ultra-light vehicles with that sort of range, the batteries account for one- third of the total weight [64]. Additionally, batteries and lightweight materials are themselves costly leading to vehicles that are several times more expensive than a conventional vehicle for the consumer. The battery pack itself in the Tesla Roadster costs as much as an entire new conventional car. i Note that this would only be applicable for road transport, not airplanes and ships. However, airplanes and ships require a higher energy density energy carrier than the electricity based carriers, anyway.PDF Image | Electrolysis of CO2 and H2O
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