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Chapter 2. Replacing Petroleum with Sustainable Energy Carriers 29 The cost of replacing batteries during the vehicle lifetime is another key concern—but one that can be addressed through appropriate sizing. Battery cycle life is the number of charge- discharge cycles that could be withstood before capacity was lower than 80% of the initial capacity. For all batteries, the cycle life is enhanced in a nonlinear manner when the battery is charged after being only partially discharged. For instance, at only 50% depth-of-discharge (DOD), the cycle life may be about 3 times that of 100% DOD [59, 78]. Hybrid electric vehicle NiMH batteries rely on small DOD to achieve long lifetimes. An all-electric vehicle battery could therefore have a long life if it is generally oversized for day-to-day driving ranges. Developments in batteries and economies of scale in manufacturing will of course bring the price down. Today’s NiMH and Li-ion traction batteries cost more than $500-700/kWh [79, 80], whereas smaller Li-ion batteries for laptops and consumer electronics sell for far less. From 1994 to 2003, production cost for Li-ion batteries fell 86% as manufacturers increased production volume by a factor of 20 [81]. High capital price is partially offset by savings in fuel during vehicle operation. If electricity is available to the consumer at $0.10/kWh and gasoline at $3/gal, and the electricity is stored and used for propulsion with about 4 times the efficiency, the ―fuel‖ cost of an electric vehicle is about one-third that of the gasoline engine vehicle [26]. 2.4.2. Hydrogen Today, hydrogen is primarily produced using fossil fuels. Steam-methane reforming is the dominant form of production, followed by gasification (of oil, refinery gas and coal). Water electrolysis accounts for the remaining 4% [51]. Coal-derived hydrogen can scale up to meet demand. Like fossil-derived hydrocarbons, the CO2 emissions during fuel production would need to be captured and sequestered. However, hydrogen appears more attractive from a GHG management point of view because air-capture of CO2 after fuel combustion would not be needed. It does not have this advantage over the electricity-based energy carriers. Because hydrogen is gaseous at ambient conditions, it takes up several times the amount of storage space and weighs several times more than gasoline (accounting for the container), which is still much more compact than the electricity-based energy carriers. Its energy density on board the vehicle is not impractical. However, the energy density while distributing it to the vehicle is much lower than electricity. Consequently, distribution and storage systems suffer significant energy losses during transport of the fuel [82]. The requirements of a new distribution infrastructure and new vehicles put hydrogen at a significant disadvantage in terms of practicality. First, there is the need to duplicate or replace existing fuel distribution and storage systems. Whether tanker trucks or large-scale pipelines are used, the energy that must be spent to transport the hydrogen can be equivalent to a large fraction of the fuel’s energy content. Storage on-board the vehicle, either as a pressurized gas, cryogenic liquid, or bound hydride, is difficult to do compactly and cost effectively.PDF Image | Electrolysis of CO2 and H2O
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