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Chapter 2. Replacing Petroleum with Sustainable Energy Carriers 35 2.6. Conclusions and Outlook This study has reviewed the major energy sources and energy carriers and examined the sustainability and practicality of each. The many pathways that can connect nearly any energy source to any energy carrier were considered. Liquid hydrocarbons are the most practical transportation fuels, due to their high energy density, ease of handling and compatibility with existing infrastructure. Electric propulsion is the most sustainable, because it has the highest life-cycle energy efficiency and eliminates emissions from the vehicle. In the near term, plug-in hybrid electric vehicles may be able to inherit the best qualities of each, significantly reducing liquid fuel demand with minimal battery size and enabling a gradual transition to a transportation infrastructure largely powered by electricity. As electricity production becomes cleaner this can have a significant impact on GHG emissions. Renewable resources may be ideally suited for providing transportation energy, where their intermittency does not cause added expenses as it does in the electric grid. With electricity powering transportation, there are opportunities for the two sectors to cooperate: e.g. storage and retrieval of electricity in vehicle batteries, which can assist matching grid supply and demand especially with intermittent electricity sources. The continued need for hydrocarbons calls for developing means to produce them sustainably. Biomass is not likely a sustainable energy source at the scale needed, with the possible exception of algae. Sustainable use of hydrocarbons on board of a vehicle depends on technologies that capture carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and either sequester it, or recycle it into a fuel using renewable or nuclear energy. Recycling CO2 into hydrocarbons using renewable or nuclear energy, in a non-biological process, appears to be the long term sustainable solution. This method of producing fuels is further examined in Chapter 3. Most of the analysis presented here focused on individual stages in the life-cycle of energy carriers. Some important metrics that limit sustainability or practicality are associated with a particular stage and from these, calculations and logical arguments could be drawn about the sustainability and practicality for large-scale use of the energy carrier. Other metrics that are important encompass the entire life-cycle, such as environmental and human health impacts, net energy balance, life cycle CO2 emissions, water consumption, and possible material supply limitations that arise in producing technologies at a large scale (for example, the metals and other materials used in photovoltaic cells, batteries, fuel cells and electrolysis cells). Further research that considers the entire life-cycles of the energy carriers would be useful. However, such life-cycle estimates must be done carefully as the outcome is very sensitive to the assumptions and defined boundaries of the system. Furthermore, efficiency and energy balance are not always all-important as many life-cycle analyses seem to assume. For example, when considering the same energy carrier (say, hydrocarbons) and either sunlight or coal as the energy sources, comparing the efficiencies of converting solar energy to that carrier and coal to thatPDF Image | Electrolysis of CO2 and H2O
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