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Chapter 3. Sustainable Hydrocarbon Fuels by Recycling CO2 with Renewable/Nuclear Energy 62 other words, the cells should be cheap to produce and run efficiently at high throughputs for a long time. 3.2.2.3.1. Low-temperature electrolysis Alkaline water electrolysis cells are the dominant type of cells in commercial operation today [95, 103, 104]. The electrode reactions are: Cathode: 2 H2O(l) + 2e– H2(g) + 2OH–(aq) Anode: 2 OH–(aq) 2e– + 1⁄2 O2(g) + H2O(l) The electrolyte is typically a 30 wt% KOH solution and the operating temperature is 70-100 °C. The electrodes are typically porous Raney nickel electrodes which are formed by electrodeposition of a Ni-Al or Ni-Zn alloy onto a metallic (often mesh) substrate followed by leaching of the Al or Zn by a strong hydroxide solution, leaving behind a porous Ni structure. Alkaline electrolysis cells are operated with an efficiency and current density as described just above. Alkaline cells, operated in the reverse direction as fuel cells, were developed and used for space exploration since the 1960s [105]. Alkaline cells have a potential economic advantage in the ability to easily replace each cell rather than the entire stack as in other cell types. The durability of alkaline electrolyzers is sufficiently high, giving a typical operating life of 10-20 years [95, 103, 104]. For the latest commercial cells, durability was not found to suffer greatly when operating on intermittent renewable electricity (older technology suffered degradation while resting at open circuit conditions for extended periods of time). However, the capital cost for an alkaline electrolyzer stack and system has been estimated at $7.5 to $9 per GJ of H2 produced, assuming near-100% capacity factor operation [95, 103, 106]. Intermittent operation increases the capital cost significantly even with optimization of operation (sacrificing efficiency to increase the current density). Alkaline electrolyzers may become viable if the manufacturing cost can be reduced to a small fraction of what it is now. Advanced alkaline electrolysis cells are at a pre-commercial stage. Such cells are typically operated at higher temperature and/or higher pressure [90, 91, 93, 94, 100, 103, 107-110] which both enhances the current density at a given cell voltage and yields high pressure hydrogen, which is needed in any case for the subsequent fuel synthesis reactors. Advanced cells also often have micro- or nano-structured electrodes made up of higher surface area nickel, alloys or composites containing nickel, or ceramic materials to improve current density [20, 94, 111-113]. Long-term durability of advanced alkaline electrolysis has been demonstrated [94, 114]. Since seawater is naturally alkaline, seawater electrolysis can use modified alkaline electrolysis cells [20]. The cells must be modified to avoid evolution of chlorine gas. Although seawater electrolysis is in fact conventionally used to produce chlorine, the scale of electrolysis operation needed to produce the fuels needed to satisfy the world’s demand for transportationPDF Image | Electrolysis of CO2 and H2O
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