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Chapter 3. Sustainable Hydrocarbon Fuels by Recycling CO2 with Renewable/Nuclear Energy 72 or H-Fe silicate catalysts [208]. Methanol synthesis and reformation to gasoline have been combined in single-step CO2 hydrogenation reactors with varying selectivities using similar Fe- based catalysts [208]. The operating conditions for these various reactors range from around 220-300 °C and 10 to 100 atm. Alternative catalysts, such as Al2O3-supported Ni or TiO2-supported Ru [208], instead favor the methanation of CO2. CO2 methanation, also known as the Sabatier process, is an exothermic reaction usually performed at temperatures of 300-400 °C: CO2(g) + 4 H2(g) CH4(g) + 2 H2O(g) + 165 kJ (at 298K). A variety of other catalysts [208, 221, 222] selectively promote CO production via the reverse water-gas shift reaction (RWGS), CO2(g) + H2(g) + 41 kJ (at 298K) CO(g) + H2O(g). However, unlike the other CO2 hydrogenation reactions, this reaction is endothermic and spontaneously yields essentially full conversion at high temperatures exceeding approximately 830 °C (see Figure 3-4), at atmospheric pressure. A methanol synthesis process has been developed in which a RWGS reactor is paired with a conventional methanol synthesis reactor [223]. Similarly, producing hydrocarbons by a single-step direct hydrogenation is an active field of research [224-228]: CO2(g) + 3 H2(g) –CH2–(l) + 2 H2O(g) + 125 kJ (at 400K) [216]. This reaction would be advantageous since it is less exothermic than the Fischer-Tropsch reaction (this is further discussed in section 3.3.1). Finally, processes that perform fuel synthesis involving reactants other than just CO2/CO/H2O/H2 have been proposed. One is the hydrogenation of CaCO3 to yield hydrocarbons while regenerating Ca(OH)2 as an air capture absorbent [9]. Another is a hydrothermal process that uses Fe as a reducing agent with CO2 in an elevated-temperature aqueous system (e.g. near hydrothermal vents in the ocean) to directly yield CH4 [229]. This is similar to a thermochemical cycle in that the oxidized Fe must be regenerated. 3.3. A Promising Pathway Based on Electrolysis in Solid Oxide Cells 3.3.1. Process and Energy Balance Of the CO2 air capture technologies reviewed, the solid adsorbent and humidity swing method appears to have the lowest energy demand (section 3.2.1). Thermal regeneration methods could also be feasible if heat management is carefully integrated with the rest of thePDF Image | Electrolysis of CO2 and H2O
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