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• Photoconversion production uses either biological organisms (bacteria or algae) or semiconductors to absorb sunlight, split water, and produce hydrogen (NREL) • Thermochemical production uses heat to produce hydrogen from biomass and solid waste (NREL) • Low-pressure storage of hydrogen in the use of metal ion intercalated graphite fibers as a medium (INEEL) • Fleet and fueling systems engineering analysis of hydrogen-powered buses and supporting fueling stations (INEEL) • Safety and risk assessment of hydrogen as transportation fuel (INEEL) • Demonstration of hydrogen-powered vehicles and related transportation system infrastructure, including hydrogen production, storage, and fueling • Demonstration of hydrogen-fueled, small-scale power generation for local (distributed) electricity production • Since hydrogen can neither be seen nor smelled, as an added safety precaution for hydrogen- fueled vehicles, hydrogen sensors are being developed. To detect hydrogen, a very thin sensor that reacts to hydrogen by changing colors is applied to the end of a fiber optic cable. The sensors can be placed throughout the vehicle to relay information on leak detection to a central control panel (NREL) As research and development progresses, collaboration with private sector partners to conduct demonstration testing of hydrogen-fueled vehicles, and demonstration testing of prototype hydrogen-fueled distributed electric power stations will be done. A list of worldwide hydrogen fuel stations can be viewed at http://www.fuelcells.org/info/charts/h2fuelingstations.pdf. 10.7.4 Hydrogen Storage The four most common methods for storing hydrogen are: • Compressed gas in pressure vessels: New materials have allowed pressure vessels and storage tanks to be constructed that can store hydrogen at extremely high pressures. • Hydrogen absorbing materials: 1. Metals (pure and alloyed) can combine with hydrogen to make a metal hydride. The hydride releases hydrogen when heated. Hydrogen stored in hydrides under pressure has a very high energy density. 2. Hydrogen molecules that have been absorbed on charcoal can approach the storage density of liquid hydrogen. 3. Small glass spheres (microspheres), carbon nanotubes, and fullerenes can hold hydrogen if it is induced at high pressure and temperature. The hydrogen is held captive in the solid matrix when the temperature lowers. Hydrogen can be released by heating the solid. • Liquid storage: Hydrogen can be converted into a liquid by reducing the temperature to – 253 oC. This can save cost in transportation, but requires additional energy and cost to keep the hydrogen at the low temperature. Refrigerating hydrogen in liquid form uses the equivalent of 25 to 30 percent of its energy content. A concern of storing liquid hydrogen is minimizing loss of liquid hydrogen by evaporation. • Underground storage in depleted oil and natural gas reservoirs, aquifers, and salt cavities: For underground storage of hydrogen, a large cavern of porous rock with an 10-35PDF Image | Fuel Cell Handbook (Seventh Edition)
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