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organization consisting of General Motors, Ford, and DaimlerChrysler) is the vehicle through which PEFC fuel cells are being developed for use in automotive applications. EERE also has the responsibility for developing PEFC fuel cells for portable and distributed generation applications as well as the technologies required for the hydrogen energy infrastructure that is important in the long-term for large-scale use of PEFC fuel cells. EERE addresses a recommendation in the National Energy Policy to integrate hydrogen and fuel cell activities by creating the Hydrogen, Fuel Cells & Infrastructure Technologies Program. The program recognizes the direct linkage between a robust cost-effective hydrogen infrastructure and the effective utilization of fuel cell technologies. This program consists of three teams: Hydrogen Production, Hydrogen Storage, and Fuel Cells. Similarly, the FreedomCAR Partnership now includes a Hydrogen Storage and Refueling Interface Technical Team, a Fuel Cell Technical Team, and a new team formed to address hydrogen production and infrastructure issues. The teams consist of automotive and energy industry professionals along with DOE personnel to ensure adequate industry input in the planning and evaluation of program activities. 10.9 Rare Earth Minerals 10.9.1 Introduction In an effort to reduce fuel cell manufacturing cost, low-priced rare earth minerals are being considered. Rare earth minerals such as lanthanum are used in making cathodes for the solid oxide fuel cell. Lower purity minerals, such as lanthanide manganite, are being tested to determine whether these materials will perform without serious degradation of fuel cell performance. The rare earth minerals are composed of scandium, yttrium, and the lanthanides. The lanthanides comprise a group of 15 elements that include: lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, promethium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, and lutetium. Cerium is the most abundant element in the rare earth group at 60 ppm, followed by yttrium at 33 ppm, lanthanum at 30 ppm, and neodymium at 28 ppm. Thulium and lutetium are the least abundant at 0.5 ppm. Molycorp, a wholly owned subsidiary of Unocal Corp., was the only company to mine rare earth minerals in the United States in 2002. The rare-earth separation plant operations stopped in 2003. Molycorp mined bastnasite, a rare earth fluorocarbonate mineral, as a primary product at Mountain Pass, California. The value of domestic ore production was estimated at $31 million in 2002; the estimated value of refined rare earth minerals was more than $1 billion. The end uses for rare earth products in 2000 were as follows: automotive catalytic, 22 percent; glass polishing and ceramics, 39 percent; permanent magnets, 16 percent; petroleum refining catalysts, 12 percent; metallurgical additives and alloys, 9 percent; rare earth phosphors for lighting, televisions, computer monitors, radar, and x-ray intensifying film, 1 percent, and miscellaneous, 1 percent. Rare earth minerals are relatively abundant in the Earth’s crust, but discovered minable concentrations are less common than for most other ores. U.S. and world resources are contained primarily in bastnasite and monazite. Bastnasite deposits in China and the United 10-38PDF Image | Fuel Cell Handbook (Seventh Edition)
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