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Sustainability 2021, 13, 1213 4 of 34 Types AFC PEMFC HT- PEMFC PAFC DMFC MCFC SOFC Anode nickel platinum platinum platinum- carbon platinum- nickel alloy nickel alloy concernasCO couldreactwiththealkalineelectrolyte.Hence,purehydrogenandpure Cathode 2 Electrolyte Typical fuels Anode Cathode oxygen (O2) are required, meaning that other fuels and air are not recommended owing to layouts and characteristics of different types of fuel cell modules is absent in the published literature. Moreover, the topic of design and development of fuel cell hybrid power sys- tems for maritime applications is lacking a comprehensive review. Therefore, this paper aims to address these shortcomings in the literature by conducting a comprehensive re- view on the development of the fuel cell modules and systems, culminating in a summary of the most promising pathways for future maritime applications. 2. Fuel Cells and Available Fuels for Sustainable Shipping 2. Fuel Cells and Available Fuels for Sustainable Shipping 2.1. Types of Fuel Cells 2.1. Types of Fuel Cells A fuel cell consists of an anode, a cathode and an electrolyte, and converts the chem- A fuel cell consists of an anode, a cathode and an electrolyte, and converts the chemical ical energy from a fuel into electricity through an electrochemical reaction. A basic sche- energy from a fuel into electricity through an electrochemical reaction. A basic schematic matic diagram of a hydrogen fuel cell is shown in Figure 1, where the two illustrations diagram of a hydrogen fuel cell is shown in Figure 1, where the two illustrations depict depict the different possible ion transfer characteristics across the electrolyte depending the different possible ion transfer characteristics across the electrolyte depending on the on the type of fuel cell. Only a very small electric potential, about 0.7 volts (V), is produced type of fuel cell. Only a very small electric potential, about 0.7 volts (V), is produced by by an individual fuel cell. Hence, cells are placed in series to create sufficient voltage to an individual fuel cell. Hence, cells are placed in series to create sufficient voltage to meet meet the requirement of an application, resulting in a “fuel cell stack”. Fuel cells are usu- the requirement of an application, resulting in a “fuel cell stack”. Fuel cells are usually ally classified by the type of electrolyte they use. Typical fuel cells and their electrochem- classified by the type of electrolyte they use. Typical fuel cells and their electrochemical riecacltrioeancstiaornesuarmemsuamrizmeadrizneTdaibnleT1a.ble 1. H2 O2 H2O H2 O2 H2O e- Load e- or e- Load e- Anode Ions+ Electrolyte Ions+ Cathode Anode Ions- Electrolyte Ions- Cathode Figure 1. Basic schematic diagram of a hydrogen fuel cell. Figure 1. Basic schematic diagram of a hydrogen fuel cell. (i) AFC (alkaline fuel cell). The AFC is relatively low cost. The only product of the Table 1. Typical materials of electrodes and electrolyte, and the electrochemical reactions on electrodes. [11]. reaction is water and there are no other emissions. However, CO2 poisoning is a major Typical Materials of Electrodes Electrochemical Reactions potassium 2H2 + 4OH- → 4H2O + O2+ 2H2O + 4e- → the significant purification measures required [11]. silver hydroxide H2 4e- 4OH- (ii) PEMFC. The low operating temperature of PEMFCs allows flexible and safe water-based operation,lessstringentmaterialrequirementsandquickstart-up.However,lowte+mpe-ra- O2+4H+4e → ture also leads to a lack of waste heat recovery options and a complex system for water platinum polymer H2 2H2 → 4H+ + 4e- membrane 2H2O management [35]. The complexity of the latter issue is not to be underestimated, with mineral acid- humidification of the air supply and removal of excess water from the cathode both posing based O2 + 4H++ 4e- → challenges. In addition, the platinum catalysts add to system cost +and -can be poisoned by platinum polymer H2 2H2 → 4H + 4e 2H2O carbon monoxide (CO) and sulphur (S) with a medium sensitivity. Therefore, a reforming and purification unit is necessary to obtain the required purity of hydrogen if hydrocarbons plartainthuemr-tchaarbnopnurephyosdprhoogreicnacried toH2b,eLNusGedanadsmfueethlsa.nol 2H2 → 4H+ + 4e- (iii) HT-PEMFC. Apart from continuous development of PEMFC technology to im- membrane water-based prove operational flexibility, extend lifetime and reduc2eCcHo3sOtH, th+e2Hd2eOvelo3pOm2e+n1t2Hof h+i1g2he platinum-ruthenium polymer methanol ruthenium temperaturePEMFCsystemsisalsoanareaofresearch→in1t2eHres+t2[3C6O].2+C1o2mepared→to6PHE2MOFC, membrane HT-PEMFC uses a mineral acid electrolyte instead of a water based one. Thus, it can work molten carbonate H2, methanol and 2H2 + 2CO32- → 2H2O + O2 + 2CO2 + 4e- → nickaeltoaxtiedme-lpitehriautmure up to 200 ◦C. Due to this higher temperature, HT-PEMFC is less sensitive salt hydrocarbons 2CO2 + 4e- 2CO32- to CO and S poisoning, and there is no need for water management. In addition, a waste lanthanum heatrecovery(WpHorRou)sscyesrtaemiccoulHd2b,meetmhapnlolyaendbyu2sHin2g+2aObo→tto2mHi2nOg+cycletoenhance 2- strontium O2 + 4e- → 2O2- overall system efficimenatceyr.ial hydrocarbons 4e- manganite (iv) PAFC (phosphoric acid fuel cell). The PAFC has a moderate cost and works at temperatures up to 200 ◦C. Due to the higher temperatures, fuels other than pure hydrogen (hydrocarbons such as LNG and methanol) can be used, whilst both a reforming unit and a WHR system (typically a steam turbine) might be included [11]. Consequently, while the product of the electrochemical reaction is water, the reforming process generates CO2. The higher operating temperature makes the platinum catalyst less sensitive to CO poisoning and other contaminants. +- O2 + 4H++ 4e- → 2H2O +-PDF Image | Fuel Cell Power Systems for Maritime Applications
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