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Sustainability 2021, 13, 1213 7 of 34 the analytic hierarchy process, are usually employed [42], whereby PEMFC/HT-PEMFC, MCFC and SOFC are thought to be the most promising types of fuel cells for maritime applications [11,43]. 2.2. Potential Marine Fuels Although most of the fuel cell technologies have higher energy efficiency than tradi- tional marine diesel engines or dual-fuel engines, the advantages are not overwhelming when costs and technical maturity are taken into account [34]. Considering low carbon or zero carbon future shipping, the scenario of fuel cell applications in the maritime in- dustry is assumed to utilize zero carbon or carbon-neutral fuels. That is to say, there is a basic assumption in this paper that carbon capture and storage (CCS) is regarded as being unavailable onboard ships. Therefore, conventional marine fossil fuels are excluded due to limited long-term prospects, but hydrogen, ammonia and synthetic natural gas (SNG, predominantly methane) and methanol from renewable sources are regarded as marine fuels with long-term prospects and will be investigated in this section. As a transition, short-term applications of fossil raw materials being used as feedstocks for hydrogen, ammonia, SNG and methanol are assumed to be acceptable. 2.2.1. Hydrogen Hydrogen is the most abundant element on earth, but due to its high reactivity, it is only found in usable quantities within chemical compounds. Consequently, in order to obtain hydrogen in its pure form, energy must be expended for the purposes of ex- traction. The feedstocks of hydrogen include fossil fuels, biomass and water. However, natural gas (NG) and coal are currently the primary feedstocks. The typical production processes of hydrogen include thermochemical conversion and electrolysis at present, as well as photoelectrochemical and biological conversion in the future [45,46]. Currently, thermochemical conversion is the primary process of hydrogen production from fossil and biomass feedstocks, and it can be classified into steam reforming, partial oxidation, au- tothermal reforming and coal/biomass gasification [34,46]. The product of thermochemical conversion of hydrocarbon fuels is known as syngas, a mixture of H2 and CO. The endothermic reaction of steam reforming can be expressed as follows: CnHm +nH2O(n+m/2)H2 +nCO The exothermic reaction of partial oxidation can be expressed as follows: CnHm +n/2O2 →m/2H2 +nCO Autothermal reforming is a combination of steam reforming and partial oxidation, and the chemical reaction can be expressed as follows: 2CnHm +n/2O2 +nH2O→(n+m)H2 +2nCO The endothermic reaction of coal/biomass gasification can be expressed as follows: C+H2O→H2 +CO The purification of hydrogen from syngas is usually achieved by water gas shift. Thus, the CO produced during the above thermochemical conversions reacts further with steam, resulting in the production of hydrogen and CO2: CO+H2OH2 +CO2 where higher hydrogen yields and lower CO concentrations are obtained. Meanwhile, combining CO2 separation technologies and CCS technologies, high purity hydrogen is obtained with no CO2 emissions.PDF Image | Fuel Cell Power Systems for Maritime Applications
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