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Sustainability 2021, 13, 1213 9 of 34 The electrolysis process splits water into hydrogen and oxygen in an electrolyser. Alkaline electrolysers are the most technically mature, but polymer electrolyte membrane electrolysers and solid oxide electrolysers show potential for future applications due to offering higher efficiency values [47]. During the electrolysis process, electricity is consumed and pure hydrogen is obtained, which is particularly ideal for low temperature fuel cells. With the increasing proportion of renewable electricity in the world energy mix, sustainable hydrogen production is an increasingly viable prospect, and would also be beneficial as an energy storage medium to deal with the fluctuations and demand mismatch inherent to most renewable technologies. In addition, photoelectrochemical conversion, or the photolysis/photolytic process, splits water into hydrogen and oxygen by using solar energy, and biological processes can convert biomass to hydrogen. These two conversion routes are also regarded as having great potential in the future. In the near to mid-term future, the deployment of sustainable hydrogen depends greatly on the costs of CCS and renewable electricity. Regarding the transportation and storage of hydrogen, low volumetric energy density is a big challenge. Even discounting the energy requirement for liquification at −253 ◦C or compression at either 350 bar or 700 bar, it is notable that a larger storage space is still required compared to conventional marine fuels. Therefore, hydrogen as a marine fuel is not ideal for long distance shipping. However, hydrogen’s excellent environmental performance always attracts industrial attention. Accordingly, further development for better hydrogen carriers is necessary. Ammonia, SNG and liquid organic hydrogen carriers (LOHCs, e.g., methanol) [48] are potential options. 2.2.2. Ammonia Ammonia is one of the most abundant synthetic chemicals in the world. The Haber– Bosch process is the most typical method of ammonia production. At 300–500 ◦C and 200–350 bar over a Fe-, Ni- or Ru-based catalyst, the chemical reaction could be expressed as follows [49–51]: N2 + 3H2 2NH3 The air is usually used for nitrogen production by the pressure swing absorption or membrane filtration method, whilst hydrogen production is as discussed in Section 2.2.1. The ammonia is stored at ambient temperature and 8 bar vapour pressure. Due to the toxicity of liquid ammonia, ammonia storage in solid form such as metal amine salts, ammonium carbonates or urea has been proposed [49,50]. However, the slightly increased storage mass and additional energy consumption for ammonia release would result in extra costs. In spite of this, ammonia is easier and less expensive to transport and store than hydrogen, and it is feasible to use ammonia as a hydrogen carrier [51]. As a hydrogen carrier, ammonia could be decomposed or cracked to release the products of hydrogen and nitrogen. Since no carbon and sulphur are contained, there is no the risk of CO or S poisoning [34]. Ammonia could be used as direct fuel for fuel cells, where ammonia-fuelled SOFC arouses significant research interest due to the decomposition of ammonia under high operating temperature and over catalysts [40,41,52]. Direct ammonia alkaline/alkaline membrane fuel cells and direct hydrazine/ammonia borane fuel cells are also possible options [40,50]. 2.2.3. Synthetic Natural Gas NG has already seen use as an alternative marine fuel to reduce SOx and NOx emis- sions. In parallel with this, NG also has the potential to reduce CO2 emissions owing to its minimum carbon emissions per unit of energy release among hydrocarbon and alcoholic fuels. NG can be synthesised from syngas using the thermochemical conversion of fossil raw materials. The exothermic reactions can be expressed as follows: 3H2 +COCH4 +H2OPDF Image | Fuel Cell Power Systems for Maritime Applications
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