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Sustainability 2021, 13, 1213 10 of 34 Apart from fossil-based NG, SNG from renewable sources could have a more favourable climate impact. Carbon-neutral SNG can be synthesised from biomass or power-to-gas systems [53]. Anaerobic digestion is the predominant process for SNG production from biomass compared to thermal gasification of organic biomass or the Sabatier reaction [54]. Power-to-gas systems produce SNG through a catalytic or biological methanation reac- tion, where hydrogen produced by water electrolysis from renewable energy and CO2 captured from industrial processes are combined together [55]. The SNG production from power-to-gas systems can be expressed as follows [56]: 4H2 +CO2 CH4 +2H2O SNG is stored below −163 ◦C in liquefied state or above 200 bar in compressed state. Hence, transportation and storage of SNG in a cryogenic or pressurized state are costly and relatively inefficient, which are the main challenges for the widespread applications of SNG. Currently, NG is an important source of hydrogen and methanol. Although the volumetric energy density of NG is twice that of hydrogen, the synthesis of SNG on land and then reforming for hydrogen onboard requires more capital for equipment, as well as the corresponding increased energy consumption. Hence, except for high temperature fuel cell power systems, there are no significant advantages for SNG compared to hydrogen. 2.2.4. Renewable Methanol Methanol is traditionally produced from NG and coal, but oil, biomass, wastes and even CO2 can also be taken as feedstocks [57]. The chemical reactions of fossil methanol synthesis from syngas can be expressed as follows: 2H2 + CO CH3OH 3H2 + CO2 CH3OH+ H2O Renewable methanol is mainly produced from second generation biomass, such as forest residues, agriculture residues, municipal solid waste and black liquor produced from pulp and the paper industry. The production process is the same as fossil methanol produc- tion, where syngas production, methanol synthesis and processing of crude methanol are covered. Renewable methanol could be regarded as carbon-neutral if renewable energy is used for the production processes [57]. Methanol can be produced by catalytic synthesis of CO2 captured from industrial processes and hydrogen electrolysed by renewable electricity, so called power-to-liquid (PtL) [58]. Methanol is liquid at ambient temperatures, making it easier to transport and store than NG, hydrogen and ammonia. The methanol industry is global and fuel methanol could be available in major port terminals globally with minimal infrastructure changes. Hence, as an important hydrogen carrier, renewable methanol has several advantages with regard to transportation, storage and energy density. 2.3. Onboard Pre-Processing of Marine Fuels The electrochemical reaction of fuel cells happens between hydrogen and oxidizing agents. Hence, pre-processing is required for marine fuels other than hydrogen. Although several marine fuels could be converted into hydrogen, a complex pre-processing system installed onboard a ship means complicated operation and probably expensive operational costs. Moreover, fossil fuels supplied onboard ships mean that an onboard CCS system is required for low carbon or zero carbon shipping. Therefore, only hydrogen, ammonia, SNG and renewable methanol are suggested to be supplied onboard ships directly in this paper. However, large-scale fuel conversions from fossil raw materials, biomass or renewable energy sources are suggested to be conducted on land. Meanwhile, sulphur would poison the catalysts used for steam reforming, water gas shift and the electrochemical reaction of fuel cells. Hence, a desulphurization process is suggested to be conducted on land as much as possible, before the fuels are supplied onboard ships. However, onboard pre-processing for converting ammonia, SNG and renewable methanol into hydrogen is still required.PDF Image | Fuel Cell Power Systems for Maritime Applications
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