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Sustainability 2021, 13, 1213 21 of 34 short period of time after load increase, followed by the adjustment of the GT. Conversely, when the external load decreases, the excess power generated by the fuel cell module can charge the battery banks. 4.4. Power Electronics and Loads (i) Battery management system. According to the state of charge (the level of charge of an electric battery relative to its capacity, SoC), the power output of the fuel cell module is adjusted automatically. A battery management system is equipped to monitor the voltage, temperature and state of charge of the battery banks to ensure safe operation. The battery charger is developed to charge the battery banks using either the fuel cell module or an external power source [26]. (ii) DC-DC converter. An individual fuel cell produces a DC voltage of 0.5–1.0 V at rated load, which decreases as current increases. Hence, only a few or as many as hundreds of individual cells could be placed in series (known as stacking) to yield a higher voltage, the maximum limit of which is usually constrained by the manufacturing process. Meanwhile, to output the desired power, a higher current is achieved by increasing the surface area of the cells, or by combining the fuel cells in parallel. The DC-DC converter is used to increase the voltage of the fuel cell module to meet the requirements of industrial applications, e.g., 240–370 V or more [26]. Due to the release of heat from the converter circuits and the use of cooling fans, the efficiency of the converter is less than 100%. As input power increases, the efficiency of the converter also increases because the proportion of the basic power consumed by the cooling fans is decreased. The DC-DC converter normally has an efficiency greater than 90%. (iii) DC-AC inverter. A DC bus is used to collect power from the DC-DC converter of the fuel cell module and distribute the power to the DC loads. An AC bus is used to collect power from the turbine generators (if fitted) of the fuel cell module, the diesel generators (if fitted) and a shore power supply. A DC-AC inverter is installed to convert the DC power from the fuel cell module to the desired current types and voltage levels, which are supplied to power AC loads. (iv) Loads. The AC bus distributes the power to the AC loads, such as auxiliary pumps and blowers of fuel cell module, and onboard auxiliary equipment including radiocommunication, navigation, lighting and air conditioners. DC and more often AC electric motors could be used for propulsion directly through driving a propeller or waterjet pump. 5. Marine Applications of Fuel Cell Power Systems 5.1. Fuel Cells for Maritime Demonstrations Fuel cells have been used for military submarines since the 1960s, but civil applications of the technology did not arise until this century. Up to now, a large number of research and demonstration projects have verified the viability of fuel cells for maritime applications. Some noticeable demonstration projects of marine fuel cells since 2000 are shown in Table 3. Reduced emissions, increased efficiency and quiet operation make fuel cells attractive for future low carbon shipping. In particular, PEMFC, including HT-PEMFC, as well as MCFC and SOFC, are the most promising types of marine fuel cells.PDF Image | Fuel Cell Power Systems for Maritime Applications
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