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Sustainability 2021, 13, 1213 26 of 34 rather than just contributing auxiliary power. Although a GT itself has no competitiveness for propulsion in a merchant marine setting due to relatively low efficiency, the overall system efficiencies of the co- and tri-generation schemes combining high temperature fuel cells, GT units and HVAC installations are claimed to be up to 70–85%. Optimizing the power distribution between fuel cells and the GT, deriving suitable control strategies and operating condition-dependent power distribution between fuel cell modules and batteries are the feasible pathways to increase the power output without compromising total efficiency. In addition, modularization is an important pathway to increase the total power of the plants, which is similar to battery banks. Several projects have demonstrated the potential of modularized fuel cells, such as the RiverCell project [11], the E4Ships Pa-X-ell project [100], and the E4Ships SchIBZ project [101]. 6.2. Safety Safe operation of power systems onboard ships is of paramount importance. The safety of fuel cell power systems depends primarily on the choice of fuel, key considerations related to which are fuel density, flashpoint, auto-ignition temperature, flammability limits and toxicity, etc. In addition, different working scenarios including bunkering, onboard storage, daily service and emergency response should be covered when managing the risks. Focusing on hydrogen, ammonia, methane and methanol discussed in this paper, gas-tight enclosures of pipelines and fuel cell stacks, redundant monitoring for leakage, emergency shutdown for systems and rapid venting of leaking fuels into the atmosphere are indispensable risk-mitigating measures for these gaseous or low flashpoint fuels. This is especially the case for ammonia and methanol which can be slightly toxic and dangerous for humans to some extent. International maritime regulations and classification rules surrounding fuel cell power systems are currently absent. Although the International Code of Safety for Ships Using Gases or Other Low-flashpoint Fuels (IGF Code) provides some reference, detailed regulations, classification rules and operational guidelines targeting fuel cell power plants are dependent on the accumulation of lots of testing and demonstration experience. Formal safety assessment and risk-based safety management are the important tools and principles for system designers, rule makers and ship operators. 6.3. Reliability The reliability of fuel cell power systems depends on trouble-free operation on the one hand; on the other hand, it depends on the availability of fuels. An absence of primary mechanical moving parts makes fuel cells relatively reliable, especially for low temperature fuel cells coupled with moderate working conditions. For MCFC and SOFC power systems however, high operating temperatures and cycling effects due to load changes make the fuel cell stack vulnerable, with the probability of failure further increased when introducing integrated fuel reforming units and WHR units. Therefore, the design of redundant systems and components could be employed to avoid a complete loss of power due to single point failures. Apart from improving the reliability of systems and components, battery banks are viable options to buffer the load fluctuations of fuel cells to avoid negative cycling effects. In addition, adequate control strategies are key to ensure reliability of complex systems. The fuel availability depends on infrastructure, which is one of the primary barriers of low carbon shipping. Purely considering economic interests, there is no market motivation for infrastructure since there are very few ships fueled by eco-friendly fuels in operation; in turn, there is little motivation for fuel-cell-powered ships since there is very little infras- tructure for fuel bunkering available. Therefore, legal frameworks and policy incentives in the maritime community, globally, regionally or locally, should be implemented. At the present time, this remains a significant barrier to widespread fuel cell adoption; however, increasingly stringent targets being levied by the IMO and the ultimate goal of net-zero carbon emissions will drive change in the years to come.PDF Image | Fuel Cell Power Systems for Maritime Applications
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