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Sustainability 2021, 13, 1213 28 of 34 scale-up [114,115]. In addition, increased system efficiency with cell scale-up will also decrease operational cost. (ii) Shorter plant lifetime. The maximum stack lifetime of MCFC and SOFC is com- monly about 40,000 h [17,106]. In any case, stack lifetimes are significantly shorter than the lifetime of 20–30 years of conventional diesel engine power plants, which further increases the plant investment cost. Fuel pretreatment, electrode material technologies and stable operating conditions are helpful to mitigate stack degradation. (iii) Higher cost of auxiliary systems and components. Fuel storage units, reforming units, WHR units, monitoring systems and power electronics are more expensive than that for conventional diesel engine power plants. However, mass production would lower the component costs and the increased energy efficiencies witnessed with fuel cell hybrid systems would save some operational cost. (iv) Investment cost for onshore infrastructure. Currently, the infrastructure for pro- duction, transport, storage and bunkering of renewable fuels is insufficient, and without regulatory intervention, the huge investment required would manifest itself in increased fuel prices. The prices of renewable fuels discussed in this paper are commonly higher than conventional marine fuels. However, with increasingly stringent regulations on local emissions in Emission Control Areas and near port areas, infrastructure for eco-friendly fuels is gradually becoming indispensable. (v) Operational cost. During the operating phase, fuel consumption is the main cost. Other operational costs include repair and maintenance, educational and training cost for special professional skills and higher wages for crews with higher skill levels. Fuel cost depends on fuel consumption and fuel price. The former is related to energy efficiency and the latter is linked to infrastructure investment as well as market supply and demand. Fuel cell stacks have higher electrical efficiencies than conventional power plants. If a GT or power turbine are installed to recover waste heat, the overall efficiency of the system will be increased [17]. However, auxiliary systems and components such as reforming, cooling, recirculating and controlling are associated with pumps, fans/blowers, sensors and controllers (usually referred to as the balance of plant, BoP), which will consume parasitic power [34]. Thus, the net system efficiency will decrease significantly. Moreover, the net system efficiency is further reduced when the plant operates at partial load conditions. Overall, energy efficiency is associated with system design [75], predetermined control strategies [75], stack degradation [116] and operating conditions [72,75]. Research and development on tailored system designs for specific maritime applications, identifying degradation mechanisms and optimized operating and control strategies are required for a higher system efficiency. 7. Conclusions and Implications Fuel cell power systems for maritime applications were reviewed in terms of their types, characteristics, potential zero carbon or carbon-neutral fuels and notable demonstra- tion projects. The challenges with regard to power capacity, safety, reliability, durability, operability and costs were analyzed. The following conclusions and implications can be summarized and are expected to provide useful reference for research communities and industrial organizations in the maritime sector. (1) Existing demonstration projects were originally aimed at reducing NOx and SOx emissions, meaning CO2 emissions were not the main consideration. This led to diesel, LNG and fossil-based methanol being the chosen fuel options for several projects. However, with the goal of achieving low or zero carbon maritime transportation, the prospects for carbon-containing fossil fuels onboard ships are not particularly optimistic due to the extra space and energy demands for carbon capture and conditioning and for the temporary storage of captured CO2. Therefore, the selection of marine fuel cell power systems and marine fuels should be considered simultaneously. The demonstration projects to date show that the refueling interval for power systems with hydrogen storage could not extend beyond 2–3 days due to the low volumetric energy density of hydrogen, otherwise thePDF Image | Fuel Cell Power Systems for Maritime Applications
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